Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is part of the broad, interdisciplinary field of neuroscience, with its primary focus being on the biological and neural substrates underlying human experiences and behaviors, as in our psychology. Derived from an earlier field known as physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience applies the principles of biology to study the physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.
Behavioral neuroscientists examine the biological bases of behavior through research that involves neuroanatomical substrates, environmental and genetic factors, effects of lesions and electrical stimulation, developmental processes, recording electrical activity, neurotransmitters, hormonal influences, chemical components, and the effects of drugs. Important topics of consideration for neuroscientific research in behavior include learning and memory, sensory processes, motivation and emotion,
as well as genetic and molecular substrates concerning the biological
bases of behavior. Subdivisions of behavioral neuroscience include the
field of cognitive neuroscience,
which emphasizes the biological processes underlying human cognition.
Behavioral and cognitive neuroscience are both concerned with the neuronal and biological bases of psychology, with a particular emphasis on either cognition or behavior depending on the field.
History
Behavioral neuroscience as a scientific discipline emerged from a
variety of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th
centuries. René Descartes proposed physical models to explain animal as well as human behavior. Descartes suggested that the pineal gland,
a midline unpaired structure in the brain of many organisms, was the
point of contact between mind and body. Descartes also elaborated on a
theory in which the pneumatics of bodily fluids could explain reflexes and other motor behavior. This theory was inspired by moving statues in a garden in Paris.
Other philosophers also helped give birth to psychology. One of the earliest textbooks in the new field, The Principles of Psychology by William James, argues that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology.
1907 image of a brain
The emergence of psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate
sciences can be traced from the emergence of physiology from anatomy, particularly neuroanatomy.
Physiologists conducted experiments on living organisms, a practice
that was distrusted by the dominant anatomists of the 18th and 19th
centuries. The influential work of Claude Bernard, Charles Bell, and William Harvey helped to convince the scientific community that reliable data could be obtained from living subjects.
Even before the 18th and 19th centuries, behavioral neuroscience was beginning to take form as far back as 1700 B.C. The question that seems to continually arise is: what is the connection
between the mind and body? The debate is formally referred to as the mind-body problem. There are two major schools of thought that attempt to resolve the mind–body problem; monism and dualism. Plato and Aristotle
are two of several philosophers who participated in this debate. Plato
believed that the brain was where all mental thought and processes
happened. In contrast, Aristotle believed the brain served the purpose of cooling down the emotions derived from the heart. The mind-body problem was a stepping stone toward attempting to understand the connection between the mind and body.
Another debate arose about localization of function or functional specialization versus equipotentiality
which played a significant role in the development in behavioral
neuroscience. As a result of localization of function research, many
famous people found within psychology have come to various different
conclusions. Wilder Penfield was able to develop a map of the cerebral cortex through studying epileptic patients along with Rassmussen. Research on localization of function has led behavioral neuroscientists
to a better understanding of which parts of the brain control behavior.
This is best exemplified through the case study of Phineas Gage.
The term "psychobiology" has been used in a variety of contexts,
emphasizing the importance of biology, which is the discipline that
studies organic, neural and cellular modifications in behavior,
plasticity in neuroscience, and biological diseases in all aspects, in
addition, biology focuses and analyzes behavior and all the subjects it
is concerned about, from a scientific point of view. In this context,
psychology helps as a complementary, but important discipline in the
neurobiological sciences. The role of psychology in this questions is
that of a social tool that backs up the main or strongest biological
science. The term "psychobiology" was first used in its modern sense by Knight Dunlap in his book An Outline of Psychobiology (1914). Dunlap also was the founder and editor-in-chief of the journal Psychobiology.
In the announcement of that journal, Dunlap writes that the journal
will publish research "...bearing on the interconnection of mental and
physiological functions", which describes the field of behavioral
neuroscience even in its modern sense.
In relation to the discipline, Solomon Carter Fuller
(1872 – 1953) also aided in the advancement of neurology and psychology
with his Alzheimer's research. Dr. Fuller was the first African
American psychiatrist and one of the pioneers of Alzheimer's disease. In 1904, Dr. Fuller began working as a research assistant under the
founder of Alzheimer's disease, Alois Alzheimer, studying presenile
dementia. Later in 1912, Dr. Fuller published the first review on
Alzheimer's disease that included information regarding his patient who
was the 9th person to ever be diagnosed with the disease. During his
time as a researcher and doctor, he worked with black veterans to
prevent them from getting misdiagnosed and deemed ineligible for
military benefits; he also trained staff to diagnose side effects from
sexually transmitted infections. In 1969, an award was established by
the American Psychiatric Association called the Solomon Carter Fuller
Award to honor black pioneers who worked to help other black people.
Neuroscience
is considered a relatively new discipline, with the first conference
for the Society of Neuroscience occurring in 1971. The meeting was held
to merge different fields focused on studying the nervous system (ex. neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, physiological psychology, neuroendocrinology, clinical neurology, neurophysiology, neuropharmacology, etc.) by creating one interdisciplinary field. In 1983, the Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, published by the American Psychological Association, was split into two separate journals: Behavioral Neuroscience and the Journal of Comparative Psychology.
The author of the journal at the time gave reasoning for this
separation, with one being that behavioral neuroscience is the broader
contemporary advancement of physiological psychology. Furthermore, in
all animals, the nervous system is the organ of behavior. Therefore,
every biological and behavioral variable that influences behavior must
go through the nervous system to do so. Present-day research in
behavioral neuroscience studies all biological variables which act
through the nervous system and relate to behavior.
Relationship to other fields of psychology and biology
In many cases, humans may serve as experimental subjects in
behavioral neuroscience experiments; however, a great deal of the
experimental literature in behavioral neuroscience comes from the study
of non-human species, most frequently rats, mice, and monkeys. As a result, a critical assumption in behavioral neuroscience is that
organisms share biological and behavioral similarities, enough to permit
extrapolations across species. This allies behavioral neuroscience closely with comparative psychology, ethology, evolutionary biology, and neurobiology. Behavioral neuroscience also has paradigmatic and methodological similarities to neuropsychology,
which relies heavily on the study of the behavior of humans with
nervous system dysfunction (i.e., a non-experimentally based biological
manipulation).
Research methods
The distinguishing characteristic of a behavioral neuroscience experiment is that either the independent variable of the experiment is biological, or some dependent variable is biological. In other words, the nervous system
of the organism under study is permanently or temporarily altered, or
some aspect of the nervous system is measured (usually to be related to a
behavioral variable).
Disabling or decreasing neural function
Lesions
– A classic method in which a brain-region of interest is naturally or
intentionally destroyed to observe any resulting changes such as
degraded or enhanced performance on some behavioral measure. Lesions can
be placed with relatively high accuracy "Thanks to a variety of brain
'atlases' which provide a map of brain regions in 3-dimensional" stereotactic coordinates.The part of the picture emphasized shows the lesion in the brain. This type of lesion can be removed through surgery.
Surgical lesions – Neural tissue is destroyed by removing it surgically.
Electrolytic lesions – Neural tissue is destroyed through the application of electrical shock trauma.
Chemical lesions – Neural tissue is destroyed by the infusion of a neurotoxin.
Temporary lesions – Neural tissue is temporarily disabled by cooling or by the use of anesthetics such as tetrodotoxin.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
– A new technique usually used with human subjects in which a magnetic
coil applied to the scalp causes unsystematic electrical activity in
nearby cortical neurons which can be experimentally analyzed as a
functional lesion.
Synthetic ligand injection
– A receptor activated solely by a synthetic ligand (RASSL) or Designer
Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADD), permits
spatial and temporal control of G protein signaling in vivo. These systems utilize G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) engineered to respond exclusively to synthetic small molecules ligands, like clozapine N-oxide (CNO), and not to their natural ligand(s). RASSL's represent a GPCR-based chemogenetic
tool. These synthetic ligands upon activation can decrease neural
function by G-protein activation. This can with Potassium attenuating
neural activity.
Optogenetic
inhibition – A light activated inhibitory protein is expressed in cells
of interest. Powerful millisecond timescale neuronal inhibition is
instigated upon stimulation by the appropriate frequency of light
delivered via fiber optics or implanted LEDs in the case of vertebrates, or via external illumination for small, sufficiently translucent invertebrates. Bacterial Halorhodopsins or Proton pumps
are the two classes of proteins used for inhibitory optogenetics,
achieving inhibition by increasing cytoplasmic levels of halides (Cl− ) or decreasing the cytoplasmic concentration of protons, respectively.
Enhancing neural function
Electrical stimulation – A classic method in which neural
activity is enhanced by application of a small electric current (too
small to cause significant cell death).
Psychopharmacological manipulations – A chemical receptor antagonist induces neural activity by interfering with neurotransmission.
Antagonists can be delivered systemically (such as by intravenous
injection) or locally (intracerebrally) during a surgical procedure into
the ventricles or into specific brain structures. For example, NMDAantagonistAP5 has been shown to inhibit the initiation of long term potentiation
of excitatory synaptic transmission (in rodent fear conditioning) which
is believed to be a vital mechanism in learning and memory.
Synthetic Ligand Injection – Likewise, Gq-DREADDs can be
used to modulate cellular function by innervation of brain regions such
as Hippocampus. This innervation results in the amplification of
γ-rhythms, which increases motor activity.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation – In some cases (for example, studies of motor cortex), this technique can be analyzed as having a stimulatory effect (rather than as a functional lesion).
Optogenetic excitation – A light activated excitatory protein is expressed in select cells. Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), a light activated cation channel, was the first bacterial opsin shown to excite neurons in response to light, though a number of new excitatory optogenetic tools have now been
generated by improving and imparting novel properties to ChR2.
Measuring neural activity
Optical techniques – Optical methods for recording neuronal
activity rely on methods that modify the optical properties of neurons
in response to the cellular events associated with action potentials or
neurotransmitter release.
Voltage sensitive dyes
(VSDs) were among the earliest method for optically detecting neuronal
activity. VSDs commonly changed their fluorescent properties in response
to a voltage change across the neuron's membrane, rendering membrane
sub-threshold and supra-threshold (action potentials) electrical
activity detectable. Genetically encoded voltage sensitive fluorescent proteins have also been developed.
Calcium imaging relies on dyes or genetically encoded proteins that fluoresce upon binding to the calcium that is transiently present during an action potential.
Synapto-pHluorin is a technique that relies on a fusion protein
that combines a synaptic vesicle membrane protein and a pH sensitive
fluorescent protein. Upon synaptic vesicle release, the chimeric protein
is exposed to the higher pH of the synaptic cleft, causing a measurable
change in fluorescence.
Single-unit recording
– A method whereby an electrode is introduced into the brain of a
living animal to detect electrical activity that is generated by the
neurons adjacent to the electrode tip. Normally this is performed with
sedated animals but sometimes it is performed on awake animals engaged
in a behavioral event, such as a thirsty rat whisking a particular
sandpaper grade previously paired with water in order to measure the
corresponding patterns of neuronal firing at the decision point.
Multielectrode recording – The use of a bundle of fine electrodes to
record the simultaneous activity of up to hundreds of neurons.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging – fMRI, a technique most frequently applied on human subjects, in which changes in cerebral blood flow can be detected in an MRI
apparatus and are taken to indicate relative activity of larger scale
brain regions (i.e., on the order of hundreds of thousands of neurons).
PET brain scans can show chemical differences in the brain
between addicts and non-addicts. The normal images in the bottom row
come from non-addicts while people with addictions have scans that look
more abnormal.Positron emission tomography
- PET detects particles called photons using a 3-D nuclear medicine
examination. These particles are emitted by injections of radioisotopes
such as fluorine. PET imaging reveal the pathological processes which
predict anatomic changes making it important for detecting, diagnosing
and characterising many pathologies.
Electroencephalography – EEG, and the derivative technique of event-related potentials,
in which scalp electrodes monitor the average activity of neurons in
the cortex (again, used most frequently with human subjects). This
technique uses different types of electrodes for recording systems such
as needle electrodes and saline-based electrodes. EEG allows for the
investigation of mental disorders, sleep disorders and physiology. It
can monitor brain development and cognitive engagement.
Electrocorticography
– ECoG, similar to an EGG, the ECoG records the brains electrical
activity and is commonly used on patients to monitor and evaluate
epilepsy or seizures. However, the ECoG is an invasive medical procedure
that measures signals directly from the brains surface. The ECoG
provides high spatial and temporal resolution as opposed to its
non-invasive counterpart, the EEG which has low temporal and spatial
resolution. Due to the invasiveness of the procedure, the data for human
patients is harder to collect than a standard EEG assessment.
Functional neuroanatomy – A more complex counterpart of phrenology. The expression of some anatomical marker is taken to reflect neural activity. For example, the expression of immediate early genes is thought to be caused by vigorous neural activity. Likewise, the injection of 2-deoxyglucose
prior to some behavioral task can be followed by anatomical
localization of that chemical; it is taken up by neurons that are
electrically active.
Magnetoencephalography
– MEG shows the functioning of the human brain through the measurement
of electromagnetic activity. Measuring the magnetic fields created by
the electric current flowing within the neurons identifies brain
activity associated with various human functions in real time, with
millimeter spatial accuracy. Clinicians can noninvasively obtain data to
help them assess neurological disorders and plan surgical treatments.
Genetic techniques
QTL mapping – The influence of a gene in some behavior can be statistically inferred by studying inbred strains of some species, most commonly mice. The recent sequencing of the genome of many species, most notably mice, has facilitated this technique.
Selective breeding – Organisms, often mice, may be bred selectively among inbred strains to create a recombinant congenic strain. This might be done to isolate an experimentally interesting stretch of DNA
derived from one strain on the background genome of another strain to
allow stronger inferences about the role of that stretch of DNA.
Genetic engineering – The genome may also be experimentally-manipulated; for example, knockout mice
can be engineered to lack a particular gene, or a gene may be expressed
in a strain which does not normally do so (the 'transgenic'). Advanced
techniques may also permit the expression or suppression of a gene to
occur by injection of some regulating chemical.
Quantifying behavior
Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) leg joints being tracked in 3D with Anipose.Markerless pose estimation – The advancement of computer vision
techniques in recent years have allowed for precise quantifications of
animal movements without needing to fit physical markers onto the
subject. On high-speed video captured in a behavioral assay, keypoints
from the subject can be extracted frame-by-frame, which is often useful to analyze in tandem with neural
recordings/manipulations. Analyses can be conducted on how keypoints
(i.e. parts of the animal) move within different phases of a particular
behavior (on a short timescale), or throughout an animal's behavioral repertoire (longer timescale). These keypoint changes can be compared with corresponding changes in
neural activity. A machine learning approach can also be used to
identify specific behaviors (e.g. forward walking, turning, grooming,
courtship, etc.), and quantify the dynamics of transitions between
behaviors.
Other research methods
Computational models - Using a computer to formulate real-world problems to develop solutions. Although this method is often focused in computer science, it has begun
to move towards other areas of study. For example, psychology is one of
these areas. Computational models allow researchers in psychology to
enhance their understanding of the functions and developments in nervous
systems. Examples of methods include the modelling of neurons, networks
and brain systems and theoretical analysis. Computational methods have a wide variety of roles including clarifying
experiments, hypothesis testing and generating new insights. These
techniques play an increasing role in the advancement of biological
psychology.
Limitations and advantages
Different manipulations have advantages and limitations. Neural
tissue destroyed as a primary consequence of a surgery, electric shock
or neurotoxin can confound the results so that the physical trauma masks
changes in the fundamental neurophysiological processes of interest.
For example, when using an electrolytic probe to create a purposeful
lesion in a distinct region of the rat brain, surrounding tissue can be
affected: so, a change in behavior exhibited by the experimental group
post-surgery is to some degree a result of damage to surrounding neural
tissue, rather than by a lesion of a distinct brain region. Most genetic manipulation techniques are also considered permanent. Temporary lesions can be achieved with advanced in genetic
manipulations, for example, certain genes can now be switched on and off
with diet. Pharmacological manipulations also allow blocking of certain
neurotransmitters temporarily as the function returns to its previous
state after the drug has been metabolized.
Topic areas
Experimental
setup for noninvasive theta-burst stimulation of the human striatum to
enhance striatal activity and motor skill learning.
In general, behavioral neuroscientists study various neuronal and biological processes underlying behavior, though limited by the need to use nonhuman animals. As a result, the
bulk of literature in behavioral neuroscience deals with experiences and
mental processes that are shared across different animal models such as:
However, with increasing technical sophistication and with the
development of more precise noninvasive methods that can be applied to
human subjects, behavioral neuroscientists are beginning to contribute
to other classical topic areas of psychology, philosophy, and
linguistics, such as:
Behavioral neuroscience has also had a strong history of contributing
to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that fall
under the purview of clinical psychology, clinical neuropsychology, and biological psychopathology (also known as abnormal psychology). Although animal models
do not exist for all mental illnesses, the field has contributed
important therapeutic data on a variety of conditions, including:
Parkinson's disease, a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs motor skills and speech.
Huntington's disease,
a rare inherited neurological disorder whose most obvious symptoms are
abnormal body movements and a lack of coordination. It also affects a
number of mental abilities and some aspects of personality.
Alzheimer's disease,
a neurodegenerative disease that, in its most common form, is found in
people over the age of 65 and is characterized by progressive cognitive
deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and by
neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes.
Clinical depression,
a common psychiatric disorder, characterized by a persistent lowering
of mood, loss of interest in usual activities and diminished ability to
experience pleasure.
Schizophrenia,
a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized
by impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly
manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions
or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social
or occupational dysfunction.
Autism,
a brain development disorder that impairs social interaction and
communication, and causes restricted and repetitive behavior, all
starting before a child is three years old. However, neuropsychologist,
which are individuals in a behavioral neuroscience subfield have used
mindfulness interventions to combat socially disruptive behaviors in
autistic children.
Anxiety,
a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional,
and behavioral components. These components combine to create the
feelings that are typically recognized as fear, apprehension, or worry.
Drug abuse, a chronic behavioral disorder in which individuals seek reward and pleasure reinforcement through uncontrollable drug use.
Alcoholism,
a behavioral disorder in which individuals compulsively consume
alcoholic substances. This disorder can result in several medical,
neurological, and psychiatric conditions.
Behavioral neuroscientists conduct research on various cognitive processes through the use of different neuroimaging
techniques. Examples of cognitive research might involve examination of
neural correlates during emotional information processing, such as one
study that analyzed the relationship between subjective affect and
neural reactivity during sustained processing of positive (savoring) and negative (rumination)
emotion. The aim of the study was to analyze whether repetitive
positive thinking (seen as being beneficial) and repetitive negative
thinking (significantly related to worse mental health) would have
similar underlying neural mechanisms. Researchers found that the
individuals who had a more intense positive affect during savoring, were
also the same individuals who had a more intense negative affect during
rumination. fMRI
data showed similar activations in brain regions during both rumination
and savoring, suggesting shared neural mechanisms between the two types
of repetitive thinking. The results of the study suggest there are
similarities, both subjectively and mechanistically, with repetitive
thinking about positive and negative emotions. This overall suggests
shared neural mechanisms by which sustained emotional processing of both
positive and negative information occurs.
Stress
Research within the field of behavioral neuroscience involves looking
at the complex neuroanatomy underlying different emotional processes,
such as stress.
Godoy et al. (2018) did so by providing an in-depth analyzation of the
neurobiological underpinnings of the stress response. The article
features on an overview on the historical development of stress research
and its importance leading up to research related to both physical and
psychological stressors today. The authors explored various
significators of stress and their corresponding neuroanatomical
processing, along with the temporal dynamics of both acute and chronic
stress and its effects on the brain. Overall, the article provides a
comprehensive scientific overview of stress through a neurobiological
lens, highlighting the importance of our current knowledge in
stress-related research areas today.
Sensation and Perception
Another common research topic within behavioral neuroscience is sensation and perception.
Wu et al. (2023) conducted a study that analyzed auditory and
somatosensory realms association with psychosocial factors (e.g.,
depression) and cognitive impairment among the geriatric population. The
article discussed how hearing loss is the most common form of sensory
dysfunction within the geriatric population as 2.5 billion people will
experience this type of sensory depletion. The researchers used the
Chinese version Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Nottingham Sensory
Assessment scale (NSA), Albert's test, Geriatric Depression Scale-30,
and the Lubben Social network Scale-6 (LSNS-6) to assess cognitive
function, sensation, perception, and negative socio-psychological
factors (i.e., depression and social isolation), respectively. After
performing a statistical analysis based on the participants assessment
scores it was found that older people with auditorial sensory loss,
atypical perception, and depression are more at risk for cognitive
impairment. However, implications such as rehabilitation,
non-pharmacological interventions for sensory loss and depression may
reduce the amount of cognitive impairment older adults experience.
Awards
Nobel Laureates
The following Nobel Prize winners could reasonably be considered behavioral neuroscientists or neurobiologists. (This list omits winners who were almost exclusively neuroanatomists or neurophysiologists; i.e., those that did not measure behavioral or neurobiological variables.)
The medical–industrial complex (MIC) refers to a network of interactions between pharmaceutical corporations, health care personnel, and medical conglomerates to supply health care-related products and services for a profit. The term is derived from the idea of the military–industrial complex.
Following the MIC's conception in 1970, the term has undergone an
evolution by critical theory scholars throughout the early 21st
century—including the fields of disability studies, Black studies, feminism, and queer studies—to describe forces of oppression against marginalized communities as they exist in the healthcare field. Prior to the conception of the "medical-industrial complex" term,
themes related to the MIC were discussed in earlier American society, as
shown through the work and philosophies of Rana A. Hogarth and Francis
Galton.
The medical–industrial complex is often discussed in the context of conflict of interest in the health care industry and is often regarded as a result of modernized healthcare and capitalism. Discussions regarding the medical-industrial complex often concern the United States healthcare system, and propose that pharmaceutical and healthcare companies, including
for-profit chain hospitals, may influence physicians' decisions through
financial incentives. Physicians may also face constraints from corporate regulations and
potential conflicts of interest related to investments in medical device
companies. Although some large medical journals have been criticized for
potentially biased publications, efforts have been made to maintain
neutrality in medical literature. Continuing medical education programs funded by pharmaceutical companies may also influence physician preferences. Finally, patients may be affected by the MIC through the promotion of
cosmetic surgery, drug price inflation, and physician bias. The Food and Drug Administration has implemented laws to protect
patients against the potential negative impacts of the
medical-industrial complex in the United States. These perspectives on the medical-industrial complex also apply to
countries outside the United States, such as India and Brazil.
Drawing from diverse theoretical frameworks and the collective
efforts of historically marginalized communities, critics have proposed
alternatives to the medical-industrial complex that aim to reimagine
health as a holistic concept, challenge the medicalization of sickness, and integrate lived experiences into healthcare settings.
Origin
In his 1961 farewell address, President Dwight D. Eisenhower
commented on the influence and immensity of the military in American
society: "...we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted
influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial
complex." This new term, the military-industrial complex,
depicts a sphere of influence between a national military and the
defense industry which provides essential supplies to the military. Deriving from this, the compound term composed of the intended institution with "industrial complex"
is created to describe the conflict of interest between an
institution's supposed goal, and the desire to profit from the
businesses/agencies that profit from serving the institution. The
conceptual framework of the medical-industrial complex sits alongside
the military-industrial complex and the prison-industrial complex, among others, to delineate the influence of free market capitalism in sociopolitical systems and institutions.
The concept of a "medical–industrial complex" was first advanced by Barbara and John Ehrenreich
in the November 1969 issue of the Bulletin of the Health Policy
Advisory Center in an article entitled "The Medical Industrial Complex"
and in a subsequent book (with Health-PAC), The American Health Empire: Power, Profits, and Politics (Random House, 1970). In "The Medical Industrial Complex," the emergence of the American
medical industrial complex is attributed to "the growing rapport between
the delivery and products industry." This definition of the medical-industrial complex describes the history of the American healthcare system, specifically the creation of social programs Medicare and Medicaid,
as an industry that has transformed into a central, essential role of
the American national economy. References to the perpetuation of
healthcare disparities by the medical-industrial complex are described,
such as "class and cultural antagonisms." Differences in accessibility of healthcare between rural and urban populations are also made at this time.
In 1980, Dr. Arnold S. Relman published a further discussion of the medical-industrial complex in The New England Journal of Medicine when he was editor-in-chief, entitled "The New Medical-Industrial Complex." Relman notably explicitly excludes pharmaceutical companies and medical
equipment companies in his description of the medical-industrial
complex. Relman argues that "in a capitalistic society there are no
practical alternatives to the private manufacture of drugs and medical
equipment." Relman still identifies the novelty of the modern medical-industrial
complex, describing the medical-industrial complex as an "unprecedented
phenomenon with broad and potentially troubling implications." As with the Ehrenreich definition, the medical-industrial complex
continues an emphasis on profit maximization on behalf of private
corporations. The "cream-skimming" phenomenon is described, where
proprietary hospitals can "skim the cream" off the market, by focusing
on wealthy patients who can afford the most profitable procedures and
services; nonprofit hospitals are therefore left with the remaining
patient base.
In the 21st century, the medical industrial complex has come to
encompass a system of oppression and subject of critical analysis by
scholars, activists, organizers, and advocates. The Health Justice
Commons describes the medical-industrial complex as intertwined
institutions, including big pharma, as well as health insurance companies, medical technology companies, and governmental regulatory bodies. Per the Health Justice Commons, the medical-industrial complex reinforces "racism, sexism, classism, homophobia, transphobia and ableism." The nature and extent of the medical-industrial complex is a subject of
debate by scholars, including those who specialize in fields of
critical theory, such as disability studies, queer theory, and Black studies. According to encyclopedia.com, the Medical-Industrial Complex has
"contributed to improvements in the health status of the population" but
"it has also strengthened and preserved the private sector and
protected a plurality of vested interests."
History
The existence of the medical-industrial complex as a concept is a
product of the development of the modern American healthcare system. In
the 19th century, the profession and practice of medicine underwent
significant professionalization and growth. Experimentation on enslaved people was common. Doctors such as gynecologist J. Marion Sims operated on enslaved black women without anesthesia in order to document and develop gynecological medical issues and techniques to repair them. The creation of hospitals to treat the sick create further disparities in favor of urban, white populations.
The contemporary American healthcare system was shaped by the passage of the Hill-Burton Act, Medicare, Medicaid, and most recently, the Affordable Care Act. The latter social programs attempt to diminish the disparity of
populations with difficulties maintaining health insurance, but does not
attempt to reduce the private sector. The medical-industrial complex endeavors to reconcile the modern
healthcare establishment with the long-term health inequalities.
Some elements of the medical-industrial complex, including the
experimentation on marginalized populations, were introduced much prior
to the modern American healthcare system. The conglomerate as it is now
known is the synthesis of the modern healthcare system with developed
capitalism.
1780–1840
In the historical monograph Medicalizing Blackness: Making Racial Differences in the Atlantic World, 1780-1840,
Rana A. Hogarth discusses "the ways in which blackness was reified in
medical discourses and used to perpetuate notions of white supremacy,"
and, consequently, harm and oppression. For example, Hogarth discusses how "white physicians constructed images
of healthy and robust black bodies capable of enduring brutal labor
regimes" while also identifying "deficiencies within these bodies that
disqualified them for self-government." Importantly, Hogarth argues that oppression of black individuals using
science predates the justification of slavery, and, instead has more to
do with the origins of the medical industrial complex that allowed for
the "intellectual, professional, and pecuniary gains" of physicians in
the English-speaking greater Caribbean region over those of black
individuals.
1900s–present
Francis Galton, in a black and white picture, seated on a chair in a suit
Eugenics has played a prominent role in the history of the MIC. The term eugenics was introduced in 1904, by Francis Galton.
It was defined as "the science which deals with all influences that
improve and develop the inborn qualities of a race" with the goal of
"represent[ing] each class or sect by its best specimens, causing them
to contribute more than their proportion to the next generation." Galton's concept of eugenics soon propagated ideas that certain groups
of people, whether they were distinguished by race, ability, or socioeconomic status, were superior to others. Renowned journals, such as Nature, published work by Galton and other eugenicists, thereby making it easier for eugenics to become a legitimate field in science.
Some instances of eugenics are infamous in society, such as the
justification of the mass ethnic genocide of Jewish people during the
Holocaust by arguing that society was in need of racial purification.
Other examples of eugenics, such as the selective abortion of
children with disabilities, are more controversial. Other notable
eugenic-like practices include compulsory sterilization of black and poor individuals and scientific racism.
Pharmaceutical companies and chain hospitals are key healthcare corporations within the Medical Industrial complex.
Influence of pharmaceutical companies
Packaged drugs ready for distribution
Pharmaceutical companies are a leading influence in the expansion of the Medical-Industrial Complex. Generic pharmaceutical drugs, which have the same chemical properties
as branded, profitable drugs, are often sold for a fraction of the cost
of their counterparts. For example, a 10 mg dose of asthma medication Singulair can cost up to $250 per month, whereas its generic counterpart Montelukast costs only ~$20 per month. Despite the inflated prices of brand-name drugs, pharmaceutical companies often induce bias in health care professionals by disproportionately promoting brand-name drugs. For example, research has shown that pharmaceutical companies promote
branded drugs more, making physicians more likely to prescribe an
expensive medicine over a generic alternative.
In addition to drugs, Laboratory Tests are also influenced by pharmaceutical company's
vested interests. Physicians are more likely to order unnecessary tests
when they are advertised by familiar pharmaceutical companies. Like branded drugs, many pharmaceutical companies set these tests at inflated prices to increase profit.
Influence of chain hospitals
Chain hospitals, in collaboration with pharmaceutical companies, also lead to the escalation of health costs. A chain hospital is a subsidiary of a hospital network
that works under a for-profit goal of expanding healthcare and
establishing hospitals across a country, most notably the United States. These corporations set standards regarding care administration,
regulation, and enforcement – often without implementing a proper code
of medical ethics. Chain hospitals and other healthcare conglomerates hold a monopoly over
health care costs within their hospitals and respective subsidiaries. Thus, they can inflate healthcare costs with the goal of increasing profit, or lowering hospital standards to cut corners where necessary.
This cost inflation is exacerbated by the fact that health care organizations
are increasingly managed by business staff who often focus on economic
gain, rather than local medical practitioners whose focus is patient
benefit. Moreover, hospitals in one state can be monitored by systems elsewhere, which gives significantly less power to local healthcare professionals.
Bias in education
The curriculum of medical students often incorporates readings from large medical journals, like the New England Journal of Medicine. These peer-reviewed journals may present results that favor expensive
drugs manufactured by healthcare corporations or pharmaceutical
companies, as these same corporations help to fund the journal. As such, these large journals can perpetuate bias in healthcare
providers' medication preferences by presenting results that are
inherently influenced by the motives of businesses.
Beyond medical school education, continuing medical education for healthcare is also subject to biased curriculum that disproportionately promotes the interest of its funders. To continue practicing as a board-certified physician,
a physician must take continuing medical education courses. Such
programs ensure that physicians are up-to-date with new medicines and
treatment plans. However, these continuing education courses are often sponsored by
pharmaceutical companies and healthcare corporations that can instill bias in physicians' education via the material provided. For example, if a course is sponsored by a medical device company, then the coursework and exams used often reference using the company's medical device. In turn, when the course is completed, it is more likely that
physicians will use that medical device when interacting with patients
regardless of if that medical device is necessary in the patients
treatment.
There are entities that work to reduce bias in continuing medical education courses, including the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education. Other groups, like the Medical education agency,
work to reduce the influence of pharmaceutical companies and hospital
corporations in the continuing medical education process.
Cosmetic rhinoplasty results
Consequences
The MIC poses unique difficulties for patients and physicians. For
patients dealing with widespread diseases, treatment often comes with
steep prices in Medicare and insurance. In recent 2020 health-care research, data has expressed how pandemics like COVID-19 have further tested the preparedness of the entire system's ability to combat a rapidly spreading virus.
Patient-level
A health professional offers a unique service to patients, since patients often defer to the guidance and wisdom of their healthcare provider. Many healthcare corporations are cognizant of the general population's
lack of medical knowledge and possess the ability to set prices. This unequal relationship between healthcare corporations and the
populace is especially important as it involves the complex interaction
between making a profit from a patient's suffering, but also physicians
having to treat the patient as effectively as possible. For patients who do not have access to reliable health insurance, this system imposes expensive medical treatment that they must pay for.
For patients with a chronic illness, diagnosis often means expensive medications for the rest of one's life. Chronic illnesses like depression may require medications until the disease is treated, whereas more severe chronic illnesses like cystic fibrosis require expensive medical and pharmaceutical treatments for one's entire life. These diseases could be treated, but their unique long-lasting nature
means money can be generated from life-long treatments as opposed to a
curative treatment.
Individuals in low-income households and racial minority groups
have experienced most of the impact of the high prices in the
medical-industrial complex during the pandemic. Over one third of Latino adults or low-income adults were uninsured at some point during 2020. In 2020, African Americans infected with COVID-19 died at a rate of
97.9 out of every 100,000, which is a death rate over twice as high as
the death rates in white people (46.6/100,000) and Asians
(40.4/100,000), and a third higher than Latinos (64.7/100,000). Notably, the death rate of African Americans is comparable to that of Indigenous populations (81.9/100,000).
Physician-level
Physicians are also subject to the medical-industrial complex and its manifestations. Throughout the 21st century,plastic surgery has become more common, a process where individuals undergo surgeries to resolve cosmetic issues. Cosmetic surgeries are often used to satisfy a certain beauty standard. For-profit healthcare promotes such non-essential healthcare services so that more profits can be created from healthy populations.
The phrase "no margin, no mission" is often used to describe for-profit healthcare, where medical centers adapt to corporate interests. For physicians, this can mean not treating uninsured patients,
performing unnecessary procedures that generate profit, or supplying
better care to patients when they have better means of pay. For-profit healthcare can have great moral and ethical considerations for physicians who feel obligated to care more for well-insured patients as opposed to under-insured, vulnerable patients.
Corporate entities, including insurance companies, also enforce standards surrounding medical treatment and payout. These rules disregard ethical and moral dilemmas that physicians often face, setting unattainable guidelines for certain situations. Physicians are often tied between healthcare corporations and insurance
companies determining what they can and cannot do for a patient,
regardless of if the treatment plan is necessary or not.
Manufacturers of medical devices also fund medical education programs, physicians, and hospitals to encourage the use of their devices. Many pharmaceutical and medical device companies are investor-based, meaning that if a device or drug receives FDA approval, investing physicians will be financially invested in the device's success or demise. Thus, a physician who is financially involved in a product or service
is more likely to promote or use the product, whether or not its
efficacy is known. This provides a conflict of interest for physicians, who may not provide their patients with effective, safe treatment due to bias for one product over another.
Laws and policies
As indicated in Mia Mingus' diagram above, the "Medical Industrial
Complex" is intertwined with the effects of economic policy on the
practice of medicine. The Dalkon Shield is an interesting example of the conflict between economic profit and patient well being:
Over a decade since the invention of the Dalkon Shield, the Safe Medical Devices Act of 1990 was passed by the FDA as an amendment to the FDCA. This act required medical device manufacturer to report any information
about medical devices that could contribute to death, sickness, or
injury. As such, healthcare professionals were required to report
malfunctioning or unsafe medical equipment.
Additionally, the Physician Payments Sunshine Act, created by the United States Department of Justice, declared that all contracts that medical device companies make with physicians must be made public. As such, this act could prevent future physicians from promoting or
overusing medical devices on patients to further personal interests over
patient benefit.
In other countries
Indian Medical Association Clinic
The healthcare system in the United States performs worse on health
indicators compared to other major nations, despite the country's higher
investment in healthcare. This is reflected in lower ratings for life expectancy and satisfaction among U.S. citizens. Some argue that these lower ratings are partly due to the fact that the
United States does not provide universal health coverage, unlike many
other nations. Some major differences between the United States and other major
countries include quality, access, efficiency, equity, and life
expectancy.
Countries in the Global South do not always have the same amount and quality of resources as countries in the Global North. Due to these disparities, scholars argue that the white savior industrial complex (WSIC) has influenced healthcare systems on individual, interpersonal, structural, and global levels. Coined by Teju Cole,
the WSIC refers to the phenomenon where privileged white individuals
seek personal fulfillment by trying to "liberate, rescue, or otherwise
uplift underprivileged people of color." According to this concept, people with a white savior
mentality may believe they know what is best for other countries,
although such individuals often end up causing more harm than good. One
such example describes how a white American physician caused Ugandan
medical staff to doubt their knowledge and ability in delivering a baby. Another example recounts how a White male physician used his privilege
to influence medical staff in India to subvert their traditional medical
practices. Scholars cite these anecdotes as examples of how widespread the WSIC has become.
India
Some individuals claim that the medical-industrial complex also exists in India, where the Indian Medical Association lobbies for their interests in local and state politics. Specifically, some doctors have accused the Indian Medical Association
of engaging in unethical practices and obstructing the advancement of
healthcare systems within the medical profession. The Indian Medical Association has responded to these claims by stating
that their critics exaggerate rare occasions of unethical practices. Yet, some doctors have privately admitted to immoral actions and have
stated that these practices are not limited to a few individual
patients. Ethics is a contentious topic both within and beyond the medical
profession. Claims of unethical practices may stem from the stark
contrast between healthcare systems ranging from tall, high-tech
hospitals to dilapidated, dirty ones. Some medical professionals and scholars suggest that stricter office
guidelines may decrease unethical practices, but this could also raise
the cost of healthcare for patients.
Brazil
In Brazil, scholars refer to the medical-industrial complex as the "healthcare-industrial complex." The healthcare-industrial complex also expands beyond Brazil, where
internal infrastructure fails to meet medical demands, leaving patients
unable to access necessary products and services. Scholars argue that Brazil's medical history reflects poor distribution
of social and economic medical policies, resulting in underdeveloped
and underfunded healthcare sectors in poor communities. The Program for Investment in the Health Industrial Complex, or PROCIS,
funds medical research in Brazil to advance the country's global
presence in pharmaceutical and medical industries. According to the Brazilian Ministry of Health,
PROCIS was formed with the goal of developing Brazil's internal
healthcare structure and promoting research, development, and treatment. Over 100 billion Brazilian reals
have been devoted to supporting medical research efforts, development
of the medical industry, and innovating existing medical products. The PROCIS also established a margin of preference on healthcare products that are nationally funded and sourced.
Cultural criticisms
A group of scholars and activists offer critiques and alternative approaches to the medical-industrial complex.
Alternative approaches
Alternative approaches to the medical-industrial complex incorporate
elements from different theoretical frameworks and practices, such as holism, environmentalism, reproductive justice, the disability rights movement, feminism, and other related concepts. These alternative approaches stem from the collective efforts of historically marginalized activists facing structural violence, including Indigenous, Black, and migrant communities. According to various scholars, these alternative approaches aim to
reimagine health as a holistic concept that extends beyond the
traditional focus of the medical-industrial complex to include the body,
mind, and spirit. Furthermore, these alternative approaches challenge the medicalization of illness and disease by highlighting how structural factors shape health, rather than just individual behaviors. Alternative approaches to the medical-industrial complex also challenge
the boundaries between patient and provider to encourage collaboration
between the two and to center the lived experiences of individuals in
the healing process.Additionally, they highlight the importance of forming caring
relationships within one's community to establish a sense of solidarity
among individuals as equal participants in the healing process.
One alternative approach to the MIC is presented by disability activist, Eli Clare,
who describes the Medical-Industrial Complex in a negative light,
stating that, through the MIC "all of our body-minds are judged in one
way or another, found to be normal or abnormal, valuable or disposable,
healthy or unhealthy." He argues that the MIC is a critical component of the ideology of cure
by shaping "our understandings of health and well- being, disability and
disease" and perpetuating the idea that bodies and minds need
improving. Clare describes the MIC as being pervasive throughout our lived
experiences, "sustained by the labor of many people, ranging from
doctors to nursing home administrators, nursing aides to psychiatrists,
physical therapists to researchers, scientists to marketing directors." Moreover, he states that the MIC is perpetuated by pharmaceutical
companies, medical ad agencies, laboratories and all health facilities. Simultaneously, Clare acknowledges that cure, and thus the medical
industrial complex, has helped many individuals to cope with chronic
diseases or illnesses that have caused them pain. Throughout his novel, Brilliant Imperfection: Battling with Cure,
Clare suggests that we, as a society, must work to re-imagine a world
with a more nuanced and critical view of cure and the MIC.
Another alternative approach to the MIC is mindfulness,
which emphasizes how the resources and tools for healing exist within
the self and not within the solutions offered by the medical-industrial
complex. Another distinct approach from the medical-industrial complex is alternative health, which incorporates elements of traditional medicine and focuses on addressing underlying factors of disease rather than merely treating symptoms. Alternative health, as a new social movement, provides a space for
individuals and communities with diverse lived experiences to actively
participate in the healthcare system while emphasizing their humanity in
the healing process. Scholars Jonathan Metzl and Helena Hansen advocate for a new approach to medical education in the United States, termed structural competency, which entails clinicians' ability to comprehend and address social determinants of health during patient interactions.
Dialectic (Ancient Greek: διαλεκτική, romanized: dialektikḗ; German: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasonedargument. Dialectic resembles debate, but the concept excludes subjective elements such as emotional appeal and rhetoric; the object is more an eventual and commonly held truth than the
"winning" of an (often binary) competition. It has its origins in ancient philosophy and continued to be developed in the Middle Ages.
Hegelianism
refigured "dialectic" to no longer refer to a literal dialogue.
Instead, the term takes on the specialized meaning of development by way
of overcoming internal contradictions. Dialectical materialism, a theory advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, adapted the Hegelian dialectic into a materialist theory of history. The legacy of Hegelian and Marxian dialectics has been criticized by philosophers, such as Karl Popper and Mario Bunge, who considered it unscientific.
Dialectic implies a developmental process and so does not fit naturally within classical logic. Nevertheless, some twentieth-century logicians have attempted to formalize it.
Classical philosophy
In classical philosophy, dialectic (Ancient Greek: διαλεκτικήdialektikḗ) is a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments, advocating propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses).
The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant
proposition, or a combination of the opposing assertions (a synthesis),
or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue.Socrates has become famous for his Socratic method of questioning conversation partners on topics until they agreed with him or admitted ignorance.
Platonism
In Platonism, dialectic assumed an ontological and metaphysical role
in that it became the process whereby the intellect passes from
sensibles to intelligibles, rising from idea to idea until it finally
grasps the supreme idea, the first principle, which is the origin of
all. The philosopher is consequently a "dialectician". In this sense, dialectic is a process of inquiry that does away with hypotheses up to the first principle. It slowly embraces multiplicity in unity. The philosopher Simon Blackburn
wrote that the dialectic in this sense is used to understand "the total
process of enlightenment, whereby the philosopher is educated so as to
achieve knowledge of the supreme good, the Form of the Good".
Aristotle
Aristotle has been traditionally understood as viewing dialectic as a lesser method of reasoning than demonstration, which derives a necessarily true conclusion, from premises assumed to be true, via syllogism. Within the Organon, the series comprising Aristotle's works about logic, the Topics is dedicated to dialectic—which he characterizes as argument from endoxa
("generally accredited opinions") where positions are subject to lines
of questioning, to which concessions may be made in response. While
Aristotle asserts "dialectic does not prove anything", he considers it
to be a useful art closely related to rhetoric.
Medieval philosophy
In the medieval period, dialectic was a foundational element of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic/dialectic), the essential curriculum in arts faculties at early universities.
Drawing heavily on the works of Aristotle, as transmitted and commented
upon by figures like Boethius, medieval thinkers employed dialectic as a
rigorous method for analyzing texts and pursuing truth through reasoned
argumentation. This practice was most notably formalized in the
academic exercise known as the quaestio disputata (disputed
question), a structured public debate where scholars presented arguments
for and against a specific proposition drawn from authoritative sources
such as Scripture, Church Fathers, or classical philosophers. The goal
was not merely to win a debate but to use logical analysis to resolve
apparent contradictions between different authorities, reconcile faith
with reason, and arrive at a unified, deeper understanding of the
subject matter. This method of systematic inquiry and rigorous logical
consistency formed the bedrock of Scholasticism and the Western
intellectual tradition, laying the groundwork for later developments in
modern philosophy and science.
This dialectic (a quaestio disputata) was formed as follows:
The question to be determined ("It is asked whether...");
A provisional answer to the question ("And it seems that...");
The principal arguments in favor of the provisional answer;
An argument against the provisional answer, traditionally a single argument from authority ("On the contrary...");
The determination of the question after weighing the evidence ("I answer that...");
The replies to each of the initial objections. ("To the first, to the second etc., I answer that...")
Modern philosophy
The concept of dialectics was given new life at the start of the nineteenth century by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel,
whose dialectical model of nature and of history made dialectics a
fundamental aspect of reality, instead of regarding the contradictions
into which dialectics leads as evidence of the limits of pure reason, as
Immanuel Kant had argued. Hegel was influenced by Johann Gottlieb Fichte's
conception of synthesis, although Hegel didn't adopt Fichte's
thesis–antithesis–synthesis language except to describe Kant's
philosophy: rather, Hegel argued that such language was "a lifeless
schema" imposed on various contents, whereas he saw his own dialectic as
flowing out of "the inner life and self-movement" of the content
itself.
In the mid-nineteenth century, Hegelian dialectic was appropriated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
and retooled in what they considered to be a nonidealistic manner. It
would also become a crucial part of later representations of Marxism as a
philosophy of dialectical materialism. These representations often contrasted dramatically and led to vigorous debate among different Marxist groups.
The Hegelian dialectic describes changes in the forms of thought, through their own internal contradictions, into concrete forms that overcome previous oppositions.
This dialectic is sometimes presented in a threefold manner, as first stated by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus, as comprising three dialectical stages of development: a thesis, giving rise to its reaction; an antithesis, which contradicts or negates the thesis; and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a synthesis. However, Hegel opposed these terms.
By contrast, the terms abstract, negative, and concrete
suggest a flaw or an incompleteness in any initial thesis. For Hegel,
the concrete must always pass through the phase of the negative, that
is, mediation. This is the essence of what is popularly called Hegelian
dialectics.
To describe the activity of overcoming the negative, Hegel often used the term Aufheben,
variously translated into English as 'sublation' or 'overcoming', to
conceive of the working of the dialectic. Roughly, the term indicates
preserving the true portion of an idea, thing, society, and so forth,
while moving beyond its limitations. What is sublated, on the one hand,
is overcome, but, on the other hand, is preserved and maintained.
As in the Socratic dialectic, Hegel claimed to proceed by making
implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the
product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage.
In his view, the purpose of dialectics is "to study things in their own
being and movement and thus to demonstrate the finitude of the partial
categories of understanding".
For Hegel, even history can be reconstructed as a unified
dialectic, the major stages of which chart a progression from
self-alienation as servitude to self-unification and realization as the rational constitutional state of free and equal citizens.
Marxist dialectic
Marxist dialectic is a form of Hegelian dialectic which applies to the study of historical materialism.
Marxist dialectic is thus a method by which one can examine social and
economic behaviors. It is the foundation of the philosophy of dialectical materialism, which forms the basis of historical materialism.
In the Marxist tradition, "dialectic" refers to regular and
mutual relationships, interactions, and processes in nature, society,
and human thought.
A dialectical relationship is a relationship in which two
phenomena or ideas mutually impact each other, leading to development
and negation. Development refers to the change and motion of phenomena
and ideas from less advanced to more advanced or from less complete to
more complete. Dialectical negation refers to a stage of development in
which a contradiction between two previous subjects gives rise to a new
subject. In the Marxist view, dialectical negation is never an endpoint,
but instead creates new conditions for further development and
negation.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, writing several decades after Hegel's death, proposed that Hegel's dialectic is too abstract. Against this, Marx presented his own dialectic method, which he claimed to be "direct opposite" of Hegel's method.
Marxist dialectics is exemplified in Das Kapital. As Marx explained,
it includes in its comprehension an
affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same
time, also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its
inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed
social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its
transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets
nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and
revolutionary.
Class struggle
is the primary contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics
because of its central role in the social and political lives of a
society. Marx believed the struggle between the capitalist class (the
purchasers of labor-power) and the working class (the sellers of
labor-power) to be the primary contradiction of the capitalist mode of
production, and that the working class must resolve this contradiction
by seizing power in a revolution, to abolish class distinctions
generally.
Friedrich Engels further proposed that nature itself is
dialectical, and that this is "a very simple process, which is taking
place everywhere and every day". His dialectical "law of the transformation of quantity into quality and vice versa" corresponds, according to Christian Fuchs, to the concept of phase transition and anticipated the concept of emergence "a hundred years ahead of his time". Stalin and Mao interpreted the transformation of quantity into quality
not as a separate law, but as a special instance of the unity and
struggle of opposites.
For Vladimir Lenin,
the primary feature of Marx's "dialectical materialism" (Lenin's term)
is its application of materialist philosophy to history and social
sciences. Lenin's main contribution to the philosophy of dialectical
materialism is his theory of reflection, which presents human
consciousness as a dynamic reflection of the objective material world
that fully shapes its contents and structure.
Later, Stalin's works on the subject established a rigid and formalistic division of Marxist–Leninist
theory into dialectical materialism and historical materialism. While
the first was supposed to be the key method and theory of the philosophy
of nature, the second was the Soviet version of the philosophy of
history.
Soviet systems theory pioneer Alexander Bogdanov viewed Hegelian and materialist dialectic as progressive, albeit inexact and diffuse, attempts at achieving what he called tektology, or a universal science of organization.
Dialectical naturalism
Dialectical naturalism is a term coined by American philosopher Murray Bookchin to describe the philosophical underpinnings of the political program of social ecology.
Dialectical naturalism explores the complex interrelationship between
social problems and the ecological consequences of human society.
Bookchin offered dialectical naturalism as a contrast to what he saw as
the "empyrean, basically antinaturalistic dialectical idealism" of
Hegel, and "the wooden, often scientistic dialectical materialism of
orthodox Marxists".
Theological dialectics
Neo-orthodoxy, in Europe also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology, is a theological approach in Protestantism that was developed in the aftermath of the First World War (1914–1918). It is characterized as a reaction against doctrines of nineteenth-century liberal theology and a more positive reevaluation of the teachings of the Reformation, much of which had been in decline (especially in western Europe) since the late eighteenth century. It is primarily associated with two Swiss professors and pastors, Karl Barth (1886–1968) and Emil Brunner (1899–1966), even though Barth himself expressed his unease in the use of the term.
In dialectical theology, the difference and opposition between
God and human beings is stressed in such a way that all human attempts
at overcoming this opposition through moral, religious or philosophical
idealism must be characterized as sin. In the death of Christ humanity
is negated and overcome, but this judgment also points forwards to the
resurrection in which humanity is reestablished in Christ. For Barth
this meant that only through God's "no" to everything human can his
"yes" be perceived. Applied to traditional themes of Protestant
theology, such as double predestination,
this means that election and reprobation cannot be viewed as a
quantitative limitation of God's action. Rather it must be seen as its
"qualitative definition".
Dialectic prominently figured in Bernard Lonergan's philosophy, in his books Insight and Method in Theology. Michael Shute wrote about Lonergan's use of dialectic in The Origins of Lonergan's Notion of the Dialectic of History.
For Lonergan, dialectic is both individual and operative in community.
Simply described, it is a dynamic process that results in something new:
For the sake of greater precision,
let us say that a dialectic is a concrete unfolding of linked but
opposed principles of change. Thus there will be a dialectic if (1)
there is an aggregate of events of a determinate character, (2) the
events may be traced to either or both of two principles, (3) the
principles are opposed yet bound together, and (4) they are modified by
the changes that successively result from them.
Dialectic is one of the eight functional specialties Lonergan
envisaged for theology to bring this discipline into the modern world.
Lonergan believed that the lack of an agreed method among scholars had
inhibited substantive agreement from being reached and progress from
being made compared to the natural sciences. Karl Rahner,
S. J., however, criticized Lonergan's theological method in a short
article entitled "Some Critical Thoughts on 'Functional Specialties in
Theology'" where he stated: "Lonergan's theological methodology seems to
me to be 'so generic that it really fits every science', and hence is
not the methodology of theology as such, but only a very general
methodology of science."
Friedrich Nietzsche
viewed dialectic as a method that imposes artificial boundaries and
suppresses the richness and diversity of reality. He rejected the notion
that truth can be fully grasped through dialectical reasoning and
offered a critique of dialectic, challenging its traditional framework
and emphasizing the limitations of its approach to understanding
reality. He expressed skepticism towards its methodology and implications in Twilight of the Idols: "I mistrust all systematizers and I avoid them. The will to a system is a lack of integrity".
In the same book, Nietzsche criticized Socrates' dialectics because he
believed it prioritized reason over instinct, resulting in the
suppression of individual passions and the imposition of an artificial
morality.
In 1937, Karl Popper
wrote and delivered a paper entitled "What Is Dialectic?" in which he
criticized the dialectics of Hegel, Marx, and Engels for their
willingness "to put up with contradictions". He argued that accepting contradiction as a valid form of logic would lead to the principle of explosion and thus trivialism.
Popper concluded the essay with these words: "The whole development of
dialectic should be a warning against the dangers inherent in
philosophical system-building. It should remind us that philosophy
should not be made a basis for any sort of scientific system and that
philosophers should be much more modest in their claims. One task which
they can fulfill quite usefully is the study of the critical methods of science." Seventy years later, Nicholas Rescher
responded that "Popper's critique touches only a hyperbolic version of
dialectic", and he quipped: "Ironically, there is something decidedly
dialectical about Popper's critique of dialectics." Around the same time as Popper's critique was published, philosopher Sidney Hook
discussed the "sense and nonsense in dialectic" and rejected two
conceptions of dialectic as unscientific but accepted one conception as a
"convenient organizing category".
The philosopher of science and physicist Mario Bunge repeatedly criticized Hegelian and Marxian dialectics, calling them "fuzzy and remote from science" and a "disastrous legacy". He concluded: "The so-called laws of dialectics, such as formulated by
Engels (1940, 1954) and Lenin (1947, 1981), are false insofar as they
are intelligible." Poe Yu-ze Wan,
reviewing Bunge's criticisms of dialectics, found Bunge's arguments to
be important and sensible, but he thought that dialectics could still
serve some heuristic purposes for scientists. Wan pointed out that scientists such as the American Marxist biologists Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin (authors of The Dialectical Biologist) and the German-American evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr,
not a Marxist himself, have found agreement between dialectical
principles and their own scientific outlooks, although Wan opined that
Engels' "laws" of dialectics "in fact 'explain' nothing".
Even some Marxists are critical of the term "dialectics". For instance, Michael Heinrich
wrote, "More often than not, the grandiose rhetoric about dialectics is
reducible to the simple fact that everything is dependent upon
everything else and is in a state of interaction and that it's all
rather complicated—which is true in most cases, but doesn't really say
anything."
Since the late 20th century, European and American logicians have attempted to provide mathematical foundations for dialectic through formalisation, although logic has been related to dialectic since ancient times. There have been pre-formal and partially-formal treatises on argument and dialectic, from authors such as Stephen Toulmin (The Uses of Argument, 1958),Nicholas Rescher (Dialectics: A Controversy-Oriented Approach to the Theory of Knowledge, 1977), and Frans H. van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst (pragma-dialectics, 1980s). One can include works of the communities of informal logic and paraconsistent logic.
Building on theories of defeasible reasoning (see John L. Pollock),
systems have been built that define well-formedness of arguments, rules
governing the process of introducing arguments based on fixed
assumptions, and rules for shifting burden. Many of these logics appear in the special area of artificial intelligence and law, though the computer scientists' interest in formalizing dialectic originates in a desire to build decision support and computer-supported collaborative work systems.
Dialectic itself can be formalised as moves in a game, where an advocate for the truth of a proposition and an opponent argue. Such games can provide a semantics of logic, one that is very general in applicability.
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