A Medley of Potpourri

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both are of different chemical composition to the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason, astronomers sometimes place them in a separate category called "ice giants". Uranus's atmosphere, although similar to Jupiter's and Saturn's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium, contains more "ices", such as water, ammonia, and methane, along with traces of hydrocarbons.^[12] It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of 49 K (−224.2 °C), and has a complex, layered cloud structure, with water thought to make up the lowest clouds, and methane the uppermost layer of clouds.^[12] In contrast, the interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock.^[11]

It is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek mythology rather than Roman mythology like the other planets, from the Latinized version of the Greek god of the sky, Ouranos. Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and numerous moons. The Uranian system has a unique configuration among those of the planets because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways, nearly into the plane of its revolution about the Sun. Its north and south poles therefore lie where most other planets have their equators.^[16] In 1986, images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as a virtually featureless planet in visible light without the cloud bands or storms associated with the other giants.^[16] Terrestrial observers have seen signs of seasonal change and increased weather activity in recent years as Uranus approached its equinox. The wind speeds on Uranus can reach 250 meters per second (900 km/h, 560 mph).^[17]

History

Though it is visible to the naked eye like the five classical planets, it was never recognized as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit.^[18] Sir William Herschel announced its discovery on March 13, 1781, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in history. Uranus was also the first planet discovered with a telescope.

Discovery

Uranus had been observed on many occasions before its recognition as a planet, but it was generally mistaken for a star. Possibly the earliest known observation was by Hipparchos himself, who in 128BC may have recorded the planet as a star for his star catalog that was later incorporated into Ptolemy's Almagest.^[19] The earliest, certain recorded sighting was in 1690 when John Flamsteed observed it at least six times, cataloging it as 34 Tauri. The French astronomer Pierre Lemonnier observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1769,^[20] including on four consecutive nights.

Sir William Herschel observed Uranus on March 13, 1781 while in the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in the town of Bath, Somerset, England (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy),^[21] but initially reported it (on April 26, 1781) as a "comet".^[22] Herschel "engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars",^[23] using a telescope of his own design.

He recorded in his journal "In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [a] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet".^[24] On March 17, he noted, "I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, for it has changed its place".^[25] When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society, he continued to assert that he had found a comet, but also implicitly compared it to a planet:^[26]

The power I had on when I first saw the comet was 227. From experience I know that the diameters of the fixed stars are not proportionally magnified with higher powers, as planets are; therefore I now put the powers at 460 and 932, and found that the diameter of the comet increased in proportion to the power, as it ought to be, on the supposition of its not being a fixed star, while the diameters of the stars to which I compared it were not increased in the same ratio. Moreover, the comet being magnified much beyond what its light would admit of, appeared hazy and ill-defined with these great powers, while the stars preserved that lustre and distinctness which from many thousand observations I knew they would retain. The sequel has shown that my surmises were well-founded, this proving to be the Comet we have lately observed.

Replica of the telescope used by Herschel to discover Uranus (William Herschel Museum, Bath)

Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal, Nevil Maskelyne, of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on April 23: "I don't know what to call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it".^[27]

Although Herschel continued to cautiously describe his new object as a comet, other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise. Russian astronomer Anders Johan Lexell was the first to compute the orbit of the new object^[28] and its nearly circular orbit led him to a conclusion that it was a planet rather than a comet. Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschel's discovery as "a moving star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet-like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn".^[29] Bode concluded that its near-circular orbit was more like a planet than a comet.^[30]

The object was soon universally accepted as a new planet. By 1783, Herschel himself acknowledged this fact to Royal Society president Joseph Banks: "By the observation of the most eminent Astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a Primary Planet of our Solar System."^[31] In recognition of his achievement, King George III gave Herschel an annual stipend of £200 on the condition that he move to Windsor so that the Royal Family could have a chance to look through his telescopes.^[32]

Naming

Maskelyne asked Herschel to "do the astronomical world the faver [sic] to give a name to your planet, which is entirely your own, [and] which we are so much obliged to you for the discovery of".^[33] In response to Maskelyne's request, Herschel decided to name the object Georgium Sidus (George's Star), or the "Georgian Planet" in honour of his new patron, King George III.^[34] He explained this decision in a letter to Joseph Banks:^[31]

In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were given to the Planets, as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno, Pallas, Apollo or Minerva, for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration of any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found Planet was discovered? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the reign of King George the Third'.

William Herschel, discoverer of Uranus

Herschel's proposed name was not popular outside of Britain, and alternatives were soon proposed. Astronomer Jérôme Lalande proposed that it be named Herschel in honour of its discoverer.^[35] Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the name Neptune, which was supported by other astronomers who liked the idea to commemorate the victories of the British Royal Naval fleet in the course of the American Revolutionary War by calling the new planet even Neptune George III or Neptune Great Britain.^[28] Bode opted for Uranus, the Latinized version of the Greek god of the sky, Ouranos. Bode argued that just as Saturn was the father of Jupiter, the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn.^[32]^[36]^[37] In 1789, Bode's Royal Academy colleague Martin Klaproth named his newly discovered element "uranium" in support of Bode's choice.^[38] Ultimately, Bode's suggestion became the most widely used, and became universal in 1850 when HM Nautical Almanac Office, the final holdout, switched from using Georgium Sidus to Uranus.^[36]

Name

Uranus is named after the ancient Greek deity of the sky Uranus (Ancient Greek: Οὐρανός), the father of Cronus (Saturn) and grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter), which in Latin became "Ūranus".^[1] It is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek mythology rather than Roman mythology. The adjective of Uranus is "Uranian".^[39] The pronunciation of the name Uranus preferred among astronomers is /ˈjʊərənəs/ EWR-ə-nəs,^[2] with stress on the first syllable as in Latin Ūranus, in contrast to the colloquial /jʊˈreɪnəs/ ew-RAY-nəs, with stress on the second syllable and a long a, though both are considered acceptable.^[e]

Uranus has two astronomical symbols. The first to be proposed, ♅,^[f] was suggested by Lalande in 1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as "un globe surmonté par la première lettre de votre nom" ("a globe surmounted by the first letter of your surname").^[35] A later proposal, ⛢,^[g] is a hybrid of the symbols for Mars and the Sun because Uranus was the Sky in Greek mythology, which was thought to be dominated by the combined powers of the Sun and Mars.^[41] In the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages, its name is literally translated as the "sky king star" (天王星).^[42]^[43]

Orbit and rotation

Uranus revolves around the Sun once every 84 Earth years. Its average distance from the Sun is roughly 3 billion km (about 20 AU)

A 1998 false-colour near-infrared image of Uranus showing cloud bands, rings, and moons obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope's NICMOS camera.

Uranus revolves around the Sun once every 84 Earth years. Its average distance from the Sun is roughly 3 billion km (about 20 AU). The variation of that distance is greater than that of any other planet, at 1.8 au.^[44] The intensity of sunlight reduces quadratically with distance, and therefore on Uranus, at about 20 times the distance from the Sun compared to Earth, it is about 1/400 the intensity of light on Earth.^[45] Its orbital elements were first calculated in 1783 by Pierre-Simon Laplace.^[46] With time, discrepancies began to appear between the predicted and observed orbits, and in 1841, John Couch Adams first proposed that the differences might be due to the gravitational tug of an unseen planet. In 1845, Urbain Le Verrier began his own independent research into Uranus's orbit. On September 23, 1846, Johann Gottfried Galle located a new planet, later named Neptune, at nearly the position predicted by Le Verrier.^[47]

The rotational period of the interior of Uranus is 17 hours, 14 minutes, clockwise (retrograde). As on all giant planets, its upper atmosphere experiences very strong winds in the direction of rotation. At some latitudes, such as about 60 degrees south, visible features of the atmosphere move much faster, making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours.^[48]

Axial tilt

Uranus has an axial tilt of 97.77°, so its axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System. This gives it seasonal changes completely unlike those of the other major planets.
Other planets can be visualized to rotate like tilted spinning tops on the plane of the Solar System, whereas Uranus rotates more like a tilted rolling ball. Near the time of Uranian solstices, one pole faces the Sun continuously whereas the other one faces away. Only a narrow strip around the equator experiences a rapid day–night cycle, but with the Sun very low over the horizon as in the Earth's polar regions. At the other side of Uranus's orbit the orientation of the poles towards the Sun is reversed. Each pole gets around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of darkness.^[49] Near the time of the equinoxes, the Sun faces the equator of Uranus giving a period of day–night cycles similar to those seen on most of the other planets. Uranus reached its most recent equinox on December 7, 2007.^[50]^[51]

Northern hemisphere	Year	Southern hemisphere
Winter solstice	1902, 1986	Summer solstice
Vernal equinox	1923, 2007	Autumnal equinox
Summer solstice	1944, 2028	Winter solstice
Autumnal equinox	1965, 2049	Vernal equinox

One result of this axis orientation is that, averaged over the Uranian year, the polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions. Nevertheless, Uranus is hotter at its equator than at its poles. The underlying mechanism that causes this is unknown. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is also not known with certainty, but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation.^[52] Uranus's south pole was pointed almost directly at the Sun at the time of Voyager 2's flyby in 1986. The labeling of this pole as "south" uses the definition currently endorsed by the International Astronomical Union, namely that the north pole of a planet or satellite is the pole that points above the invariable plane of the Solar System, regardless of the direction the planet is spinning.^[53]^[54] A different convention is sometimes used, in which a body's north and south poles are defined according to the right-hand rule in relation to the direction of rotation.^[55] In terms of this latter coordinate system it was Uranus's north pole that was in sunlight in 1986.

Visibility

From 1995 to 2006, Uranus's apparent magnitude fluctuated between +5.6 and +5.9, placing it just within the limit of naked eye visibility at +6.5.^[10] Its angular diameter is between 3.4 and 3.7 arcseconds, compared with 16 to 20 arcseconds for Saturn and 32 to 45 arcseconds for Jupiter.^[10] At opposition, Uranus is visible to the naked eye in dark skies, and becomes an easy target even in urban conditions with binoculars.^[5] In larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter of between 15 and 23 cm, Uranus appears as a pale cyan disk with distinct limb darkening. With a large telescope of 25 cm or wider, cloud patterns, as well as some of the larger satellites, such as Titania and Oberon, may be visible.^[56]

Internal structure

Size comparison of Earth and Uranus

Diagram of the interior of Uranus

Uranus's mass is roughly 14.5 times that of the Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets. Its diameter is slightly larger than Neptune's at roughly four times Earth's. A resulting density of 1.27 g/cm³ makes Uranus the second least dense planet, after Saturn.^[8]^[9] This value indicates that it is made primarily of various ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane.^[11] The total mass of ice in Uranus's interior is not precisely known, because different figures emerge depending on the model chosen; it must be between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses.^[11]^[57] Hydrogen and helium constitute only a small part of the total, with between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses.^[11] The remainder of the non-ice mass (0.5 to 3.7 Earth masses) is accounted for by rocky material.^[11]

The standard model of Uranus's structure is that it consists of three layers: a rocky (silicate/iron-nickel) core in the center, an icy mantle in the middle and an outer gaseous hydrogen/helium envelope.^[11]^[58] The core is relatively small, with a mass of only 0.55 Earth masses and a radius less than 20% of Uranus's; the mantle comprises its bulk, with around 13.4 Earth masses, whereas the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial, weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20% of Uranus's radius.^[11]^[58] Uranus's core density is around 9 g/cm³, with a pressure in the center of 8 million bars (800 GPa) and a temperature of about 5000 K.^[57]^[58] The ice mantle is not in fact composed of ice in the conventional sense, but of a hot and dense fluid consisting of water, ammonia and other volatiles.^[11]^[58] This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean.^[59]

According to research conducted at the University of California, Berkeley, the extreme pressure and temperature deep within Uranus may break up the methane molecules, with the carbon atoms condensing into crystals of diamond that rain down through the mantle like hailstones.^[60] Very-high-pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the base of the mantle may comprise an ocean of liquid diamond, with floating solid 'diamond-bergs'.^[61]^[62]

The bulk compositions of Uranus and Neptune are very different from those of Jupiter and Saturn, with ice dominating over gases, hence justifying their separate classification as ice giants. There may be a layer of ionic water where the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions move freely within the oxygen lattice.^[63]

Although the model considered above is reasonably standard, it is not unique; other models also satisfy observations. For instance, if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle, the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower, and, correspondingly, the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher. Presently available data does not allow science to determine which model is correct.^[57] The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface. The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers.^[11] For the sake of convenience, a revolving oblate spheroid set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa) is conditionally designated as a "surface". It has equatorial and polar radii of 25 559 ± 4 and 24 973 ± 20 km, respectively.^[8] This surface will be used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes.

Internal heat

Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux.^[17]^[64] Why Uranus's internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun.^[17] Uranus, by contrast, radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is 1.06 ± 0.08 times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere.^[12]^[65] In fact, Uranus's heat flux is only 0.042 ± 0.047 W/m², which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m².^[65] The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224 °C), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.^[12]^[65]

One of the hypotheses for this discrepancy suggests that when Uranus was hit by a supermassive impactor, which caused it to expel most of its primordial heat, it was left with a depleted core temperature.^[66] Another hypothesis is that some form of barrier exists in Uranus's upper layers that prevents the core's heat from reaching the surface.^[11] For example, convection may take place in a set of compositionally different layers, which may inhibit the upward heat transport;^[12]^[65] it is possible that double diffusive convection is a limiting factor.^[11]

Atmosphere

Although there is no well-defined solid surface within Uranus's interior; the outermost part of Uranus's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its atmosphere.^[12] Remote-sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar (100 kPa) level, with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar (10 MPa) and temperature of 320 K.^[67] The tenuous corona of the atmosphere extends remarkably over two planetary radii from the nominal surface, which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar.^[68] The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar; (10 MPa to 10 kPa), the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between 0.1 and 10⁻¹⁰ bar (10 kPa to 10 µPa), and the thermosphere/corona extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface.^[12] There is no mesosphere.

Composition

The composition of the Uranian atmosphere is different from its bulk, consisting mainly of molecular hydrogen and helium.^[12] The helium molar fraction, i.e. the number of helium atoms per molecule of gas, is 0.15 ± 0.03^[15] in the upper troposphere, which corresponds to a mass fraction 0.26 ± 0.05.^[12]^[65] This value is very close to the protosolar helium mass fraction of 0.275 ± 0.01,^[69] indicating that helium has not settled in its center like it has in the gas giants.^[12] The third most abundant constituent of the Uranian atmosphere is methane (CH₄).^[12] Methane possesses prominent absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared (IR) making Uranus aquamarine or cyan in color.^[12] Methane molecules account for 2.3% of the atmosphere by molar fraction below the methane cloud deck at the pressure level of 1.3 bar (130 kPa); this represents about 20 to 30 times the carbon abundance found in the Sun.^[12]^[14]^[70] The mixing ratio^[h] is much lower in the upper atmosphere owing to its extremely low temperature, which lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out.^[71] The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia, water and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known. They are probably also higher than solar values.^[12]^[72] Along with methane, trace amounts of various hydrocarbons are found in the stratosphere of Uranus, which are thought to be produced from methane by photolysis induced by the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation.^[73] They include ethane (C₂H₆), acetylene (C₂H₂), methylacetylene (CH₃C₂H), and diacetylene (C₂HC₂H).^[71]^[74]^[75] Spectroscopy has also uncovered traces of water
vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere, which can only originate from an external source such as infalling dust and comets.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterized by a decrease in temperature with altitude.^[12] The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K at 50 km.^[67]^[70] The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude.^[12]^[64] The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus's thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K.^[64]^[65]

The troposphere is believed to possess a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of 50 to 100 bar (5 to 10 MPa), ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of 20 to 40 bar (2 to 4 MPa), ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between 3 and 10 bar (0.3 to 1 MPa) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at 1 to 2 bar (0.1 to 0.2 MPa).^[12]^[14]^[67]^[77] The troposphere is a very dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds and seasonal changes.^[17]

Upper atmosphere

The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the stratosphere, where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K at the base of the thermosphere.^[68] The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons,^[78] which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane photolysis.^[73] Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere.^[78] The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 10 to 0.1 mbar (1000 to 10 kPa) and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K.^[71]^[74] The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane, acetylene and ethane with mixing ratios of around 10⁻⁷ relative to hydrogen. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes.^[71]^[74]^[76] Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower.^[74] The abundance ratio of water is around 7×10⁻⁹.^[75] Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of stratosphere and tropopause (below 10 mBar level) forming haze layers,^[73] which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets.^[71]^[79]

The outermost layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the thermosphere and corona, which has a uniform temperature around 800 to 850 K.^[12]^[79] The heat sources necessary to sustain such a high level are not understood, as neither the solar UV, the extreme UV radiation, nor the auroral activity can provide the necessary energy to maintain these temperatures. The weak cooling efficiency due to the lack of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere above 0.1 mBar pressure level may contribute too.^[68]^[79] In addition to molecular hydrogen, the thermosphere-corona contains many free hydrogen atoms. Their small mass together with the high temperatures explain why the corona extends as far as 50 000 km, or two Uranian radii, from its surface.^[68]^[79] This extended corona is a unique feature of Uranus.^[79] Its effects include a drag on small particles orbiting Uranus, causing a general depletion of dust in the Uranian rings.^[68] The Uranian thermosphere, together with the upper part of the stratosphere, corresponds to the ionosphere of Uranus.^[70] Observations show that the ionosphere occupies altitudes from 2 000 to 10 000 km.^[70] The Uranian ionosphere is denser than that of either Saturn or Neptune, which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere.^[79]^[80] The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity.^[81] Auroral activity is insignificant as compared to Jupiter and Saturn.^[79]^[82]

Uranus's Atmosphere
Temperature profile of the Uranian troposphere and lower stratosphere. Cloud and haze layers are also indicated.
Zonal wind speeds on Uranus. Shaded areas show the southern collar and its future northern counterpart. The red curve is a symmetrical fit to the data.

Planetary rings

The rings are composed of extremely dark particles, which vary in size from micrometers to a fraction of a meter.^[16] Thirteen distinct rings are presently known, the brightest being the ε ring. All except two rings of Uranus are extremely narrow – they are usually a few kilometres wide. The rings are probably quite young; the dynamics considerations indicate that they did not form with Uranus. The matter in the rings may once have been part of a moon (or moons) that was shattered by high-speed impacts. From numerous pieces of debris that formed as a result of those impacts, only a few particles survived, in a limited number of stable zones corresponding to the locations of present rings.^[83]^[84]
William Herschel described a possible ring around Uranus in 1789. This sighting is generally considered doubtful, because the rings are quite faint, and in the two following centuries none were noted by other observers. Still, Herschel made an accurate description of the epsilon ring's size, its angle relative to the Earth, its red color, and its apparent changes as Uranus traveled around the Sun.^[85]^[86] The ring system was definitively discovered on March 10, 1977 by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Douglas J. Mink using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. The discovery was serendipitous; they planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 by Uranus to study its atmosphere. When their observations were analyzed, they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus. They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus.^[87] Later they detected four additional rings.^[87] The rings were directly imaged when Voyager 2 passed Uranus in 1986.^[16] Voyager 2 also discovered two additional faint rings, bringing the total number to eleven.^[16]

In December 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope detected a pair of previously unknown rings. The largest is located twice as far from Uranus as the previously known rings. These new rings are so far from Uranus that they are called the "outer" ring system. Hubble also spotted two small satellites, one of which, Mab, shares its orbit with the outermost newly discovered ring. The new rings bring the total number of Uranian rings to 13.^[88] In April 2006, images of the new rings from the Keck Observatory yielded the colours of the outer rings: the outermost is blue and the other one red.^[89]^[90] One hypothesis concerning the outer ring's blue color is that it is composed of minute particles of water ice from the surface of Mab that are small enough to scatter blue light.^[89]^[91] In contrast, Uranus's inner rings appear grey.^[89]

Uranus's Rings
Animation about the discovering occultation in 1977. (Click on it to start)
Uranus has a complicated planetary ring system, which was the second such system to be discovered in the Solar System after Saturn's.^[83]
Uranus's aurorae against its equatorial rings, imaged by the Hubble telescope. Unlike the aurorae of Earth and Jupiter, those of Uranus are not in line with its poles, due to its lopsided magnetic field.

Magnetosphere

The magnetic field of Uranus as observed by Voyager 2 in 1986. S and N are magnetic south and north poles.

Before the arrival of Voyager 2, no measurements of the Uranian magnetosphere had been taken, so its nature remained a mystery. Before 1986, astronomers had expected the magnetic field of Uranus to be in line with the solar wind, because it would then align with Uranus's poles that lie in the ecliptic.^[92]

Voyager's observations revealed that Uranus's magnetic field is peculiar, both because it does not originate from its geometric center, and because it is tilted at 59° from the axis of rotation.^[92]^[93] In fact the magnetic dipole is shifted from the Uranus's center towards the south rotational pole by as much as one third of the planetary radius.^[92] This unusual geometry results in a highly asymmetric magnetosphere, where the magnetic field strength on the surface in the southern hemisphere can be as low as 0.1 gauss (10 µT), whereas in the northern hemisphere it can be as high as 1.1 gauss (110 µT).^[92] The average field at the surface is 0.23 gauss (23 µT).^[92] In comparison, the magnetic field of Earth is roughly as strong at either pole, and its "magnetic equator" is roughly parallel with its geographical equator.^[93] The dipole moment of Uranus is 50 times that of Earth.^[92]^[93] Neptune has a similarly displaced and tilted magnetic field, suggesting that this may be a common feature of ice giants.^[93] One hypothesis is that, unlike the magnetic fields of the terrestrial and gas giants, which are generated within their cores, the ice giants' magnetic fields are generated by motion at relatively shallow depths, for instance, in the water–ammonia ocean.^[59]^[94] Another possible explanation for the magnetosphere's alignment is that there are oceans of liquid diamond in Uranus's interior that would deter the magnetic field.^[95]

Despite its curious alignment, in other respects the Uranian magnetosphere is like those of other planets: it has a bow shock located at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it, a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii, a fully developed magnetotail, and radiation belts.^[92]^[93]^[96] Overall, the structure of Uranus's magnetosphere is different from Jupiter's and more similar to Saturn's.^[92]^[93] Uranus's magnetotail trails behind it into space for millions of kilometers and is twisted by its sideways rotation into a long corkscrew.^[92]^[97]

Uranus's magnetosphere contains charged particles: mainly protons and electrons, with a small amount of H₂⁺ ions.^[93]^[96] No heavier ions have been detected. Many of these particles probably derive from the hot atmospheric corona.^[96] The ion and electron energies can be as high as 4 and 1.2 megaelectronvolts, respectively.^[96] The density of low-energy (below 1 kiloelectronvolt) ions in the inner magnetosphere is about 2 cm⁻³.^[98] The particle population is strongly affected by the Uranian moons, which sweep through the magnetosphere, leaving noticeable gaps.^[96] The particle flux is high enough to cause darkening or space weathering of their surfaces on an astronomically rapid timescale of 100,000 years.^[96] This may be the cause of the uniformly dark colouration of the Uranian satellites and rings.^[84] Uranus has relatively well developed aurorae, which are seen as bright arcs around both magnetic poles.^[79] Unlike Jupiter's, Uranus's aurorae seem to be insignificant for the energy balance of the planetary thermosphere.^[82]

Climate

Uranus's southern hemisphere in approximate natural colour (left) and in shorter wavelengths (right), showing its faint cloud bands and atmospheric "hood" as seen by Voyager 2

At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Uranus's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other giant planets, even to Neptune, which it otherwise closely resembles.^[17] When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986, it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet.^[16]^[99] One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets. The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K, making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System, colder than Neptune.^[12]^[65]

Banded structure, winds and clouds

In 1986, Voyager 2 found that the visible southern hemisphere of Uranus can be subdivided into two regions: a bright polar cap and dark equatorial bands (see figure on the right).^[16] Their boundary is located at about −45° of latitude. A narrow band straddling the latitudinal range from −45 to −50° is the brightest large feature on its visible surface.^[16]^[100] It is called a southern "collar". The cap and collar are thought to be a dense region of methane clouds located within the pressure range of 1.3 to 2 bar (see above).^[101] Besides the large-scale banded structure, Voyager 2 observed ten small bright clouds, most lying several degrees to the north from the collar.^[16] In all other respects Uranus looked like a dynamically dead planet in 1986. Unfortunately, Voyager 2 arrived during the height of Uranus's southern summer and could not observe the northern hemisphere. At the beginning of the 21st century, when the northern polar region came into view, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere.^[100] So Uranus appeared to be asymmetric: bright near the south pole and uniformly dark in the region north of the southern collar.^[100] In 2007, when Uranus passed its equinox, the southern collar almost disappeared, whereas a faint northern collar emerged near 45° of latitude.^[102]

The first dark spot observed on Uranus. Image obtained by the HST ACS in 2006.

In the 1990s, the number of the observed bright cloud features grew considerably partly because new high-resolution imaging techniques became available.^[17] Most were found in the northern hemisphere as it started to become visible.^[17] An early explanation—that bright clouds are easier to identify in its dark part, whereas in the southern hemisphere the bright collar masks them – was shown to be incorrect: the actual number of features has indeed increased considerably.^[103]^[104] Nevertheless there are differences between the clouds of each hemisphere. The northern clouds are smaller, sharper and brighter.^[104] They appear to lie at a higher altitude.^[104] The lifetime of clouds spans several orders of magnitude. Some small clouds live for hours, whereas at least one southern cloud may have persisted since the Voyager flyby.^[17]^[99] Recent observation also discovered that cloud features on Uranus have a lot in common with those on Neptune.^[17] For example, the dark spots common on Neptune had never been observed on Uranus before 2006, when the first such feature dubbed Uranus Dark Spot was imaged.^[105] The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune-like during its equinoctial season.^[106]

The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus.^[17] At the equator winds are retrograde, which means that they blow in the reverse direction to the planetary rotation. Their speeds are from −100 to −50 m/s.^[17]^[100] Wind speeds increase with the distance from the equator, reaching zero values near ±20° latitude, where the troposphere's temperature minimum is located.^[17]^[64] Closer to the poles, the winds shift to a prograde direction, flowing with Uranus's rotation. Windspeeds continue to increase reaching maxima at ±60° latitude before falling to zero at the poles.^[17] Windspeeds at −40° latitude range from 150 to 200 m/s. Because the collar obscures all clouds below that parallel, speeds between it and the southern pole are impossible to measure.^[17] In contrast, in the northern hemisphere maximum speeds as high as 240 m/s are observed near +50° latitude.^[17]^[100]^[107]

Seasonal variation

Uranus in 2005. Rings, southern collar and a bright cloud in the northern hemisphere are visible (HST ACS image).

For a short period from March to May 2004, a number of large clouds appeared in the Uranian atmosphere, giving it a Neptune-like appearance.^[104]^[108] Observations included record-breaking wind speeds of 229 m/s (824 km/h) and a persistent thunderstorm referred to as "Fourth of July fireworks".^[99] On August 23, 2006, researchers at the Space Science Institute (Boulder, CO) and the University of Wisconsin observed a dark spot on Uranus's surface, giving astronomers more insight into Uranus's atmospheric activity.^[105] Why this sudden upsurge in activity should be occurring is not fully known, but it appears that Uranus's extreme axial tilt results in extreme seasonal variations in its weather.^[51]^[106] Determining the nature of this seasonal variation is difficult because good data on Uranus's atmosphere have existed for less than 84 years, or one full Uranian year. A number of discoveries have been made. Photometry over the course of half a Uranian year (beginning in the 1950s) has shown regular variation in the brightness in two spectral bands, with maxima occurring at the solstices and minima occurring at the equinoxes.^[109] A similar periodic variation, with maxima at the solstices, has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s.^[110] Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice.^[78] The majority of this variability is believed to occur owing to changes in the viewing geometry.^[103]

There are some reasons to believe that physical seasonal changes are happening in Uranus. Although Uranus is known to have a bright south polar region, the north pole is fairly dim, which is incompatible with the model of the seasonal change outlined above.^[106] During its previous northern solstice in 1944, Uranus displayed elevated levels of brightness, which suggests that the north pole was not always so dim.^[109] This information implies that the visible pole brightens some time before the solstice and darkens after the equinox.^[106] Detailed analysis of the visible and microwave data revealed that the periodical changes of brightness are not completely symmetrical around the solstices, which also indicates a change in the meridional albedo patterns.^[106] Finally in the 1990s, as Uranus moved away from its solstice, Hubble and ground-based telescopes revealed that the south polar cap darkened noticeably (except the southern collar, which remained bright),^[101] whereas the northern hemisphere demonstrated increasing activity,^[99] such as cloud formations and stronger winds, bolstering expectations that it should brighten soon.^[104] This indeed happened in 2007 when it passed an equinox: a faint northern polar collar arose, whereas the southern collar became nearly invisible, although the zonal wind profile remained slightly asymmetric, with northern winds being somewhat slower than southern.^[102]

The mechanism of physical changes is still not clear.^[106] Near the summer and winter solstices, Uranus's hemispheres lie alternately either in full glare of the Sun's rays or facing deep space. The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere.^[101] The bright collar at −45° latitude is also connected with methane clouds.^[101] Other changes in the southern polar region can be explained by changes in the lower cloud layers.^[101] The variation of the microwave emission from Uranus is probably caused by changes in the deep tropospheric circulation, because thick polar clouds and haze may inhibit convection.^[111] Now that the spring and autumn equinoxes are arriving on Uranus, the dynamics are changing and convection can occur again.^[99]^[111]

Formation

Many argue that the differences between the ice giants and the gas giants extend to their formation.^[112]^[113] The Solar System is believed to have formed from a giant rotating ball of gas and dust known as the presolar nebula. Much of the nebula's gas, primarily hydrogen and helium, formed the Sun, whereas the dust grains collected together to form the first protoplanets. As the planets grew, some of them eventually accreted enough matter for their gravity to hold onto the nebula's leftover gas.^[112]^[113] The more gas they held onto, the larger they became; the larger they became, the more gas they held onto until a critical point was reached, and their size began to increase exponentially.
The ice giants, with only a few Earth masses of nebular gas, never reached that critical point.^[112]^[113]^[114] Recent simulations of planetary migration have suggested that both ice giants formed closer to the Sun than their present positions, and moved outwards after formation (the Nice model).^[112]

Moons

Major moons of Uranus in order of increasing distance (left to right), at their proper relative sizes and albedos (collage of Voyager 2 photographs)

The Uranus System (NACO/VLT image)

Uranus has 27 known natural satellites.^[114] The names for these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.^[58]^[115] The five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon.^[58] The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets; indeed, the combined mass of the five major satellites would be less than half that of Triton alone.^[9] The largest of the Uranian satellites, Titania, has a radius of only 788.9 km, or less than half that of the Earth's moon, but slightly more than Rhea, the second largest satellite of Saturn, making Titania the eighth largest moon in the Solar System. The Uranian satellites have relatively low albedos; ranging from 0.20 for Umbriel to 0.35 for Ariel (in green light).^[16] They are ice–rock conglomerates composed of roughly 50% ice and 50% rock. The ice may include ammonia and carbon dioxide.^[84]^[116]

Among the Uranian satellites, Ariel appears to have the youngest surface with the fewest impact craters, whereas Umbriel's appears oldest.^[16]^[84] Miranda possesses fault canyons 20 kilometers deep, terraced layers, and a chaotic variation in surface ages and features.^[16] Miranda's past geologic activity is believed to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently, probably as a result of a former 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel.^[117] Extensional processes associated with upwelling diapirs are the likely origin of Miranda's 'racetrack'-like coronae.^[118]^[119] Similarly, Ariel is believed to have once been held in a 4:1 resonance with Titania.^[120]

Uranus possesses at least one horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun–Uranus L₃ Lagrangian point – a gravitationally unstable region at 180º in its orbit, 83982 Crantor.^[121]^[122] Crantor currently moves inside Uranus's co-orbital region on a complex, temporary horseshoe orbit. 2010 EU65 is also a promising Uranus horseshoe librator candidate.^[122]

Exploration

Crescent Uranus as imaged by Voyager 2 while departing for Neptune

In 1986, NASA's Voyager 2 interplanetary probe encountered Uranus. This flyby remains the only investigation of Uranus carried out from a short distance, and no other visits are currently planned. Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on January 24, 1986, coming within 81,500 kilometers of the cloudtops, before continuing its journey to Neptune. Voyager 2 studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus's atmosphere,^[70] including its unique weather, caused by its axial tilt of 97.77°. It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons, and discovered 10 new moons. It examined all nine of the system's known rings and discovered two new ones.^[16]^[84]^[123] It also studied the magnetic field, its irregular structure, its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus's sideways orientation.^[92]

The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft to Uranus was evaluated during a mission extension planning phase in 2009.^[124] It would take about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn.^[124] A Uranus orbiter and probe was recommended by the 2013–2022 Planetary Science Decadal Survey published in 2011; the proposal envisages launch during 2020–2023 and a 13-year cruise to Uranus.^[125] A Uranus entry probe could use Pioneer Venus Multiprobe heritage and descend to 1–5 atmospheres.^[125] The ESA evaluated a "medium-class" mission called Uranus Pathfinder.^[126] A New Frontiers Uranus Orbiter has been evaluated and recommended in the study, The Case for a Uranus Orbiter.^[127] Such a mission is aided by the ease with which a relatively big mass can be sent to the system—over 1500 kg with an Atlas 521 and 12-year journey.^[128] For more concepts see Proposed Uranus missions.

In culture

In astrology, the planet Uranus (

) is the ruling planet of Aquarius. Because Uranus is colored cyan and Uranus is associated with electricity, the color electric blue, a color close to cyan, is associated with the sign Aquarius^[129] (see Uranus in astrology).

The chemical element uranium, discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, was named after the newly discovered planet Uranus.^[130]

"Uranus, the Magician" is a movement in Gustav Holst's The Planets, written between 1914 and 1916.

Operation Uranus was the successful military operation in World War II by the Soviet army to take back Stalingrad and marked the turning point in the land war against the Wehrmacht.

The lines "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies/When a new planet swims into his ken", from John Keats's "On First Looking Into Chapman's Homer", are a reference to Herschel's discovery of Uranus.^[131]

Time Travel Simulation Resolves “Grandfather Paradox”

What would happen to you if you went back in time and killed your grandfather? A model using photons reveals that quantum mechanics can solve the quandary—and even foil quantum cryptography

Sep 2, 2014 |By Lee Billings

Entering a closed timelike curve tomorrow means you could end up at today.
*Credit: Dmitry Schidlovsky*

Original link: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-travel-simulation-resolves-grandfather-paradox/

On June 28, 2009, the world-famous physicist Stephen Hawking threw a party at the University of Cambridge, complete with balloons, hors d'oeuvres and iced champagne. Everyone was invited but no one showed up. Hawking had expected as much, because he only sent out invitations after his party had concluded. It was, he said, "a welcome reception for future time travelers," a tongue-in-cheek experiment to reinforce his "1992 conjecture that travel into the past is effectively impossible.

But Hawking may be on the wrong side of history. Recent experiments offer tentative support for time travel's feasibility—at least from a mathematical perspective. The study cuts to the core of our understanding of the universe, and the resolution of the possibility of time travel, far from being a topic worthy only of science fiction, would have profound implications for fundamental physics as well as for practical applications such as quantum cryptography and computing.

Closed timelike curves

The source of time travel speculation lies in the fact that our best physical theories seem to contain no prohibitions on traveling backward through time. The feat should be possible based on Einstein's theory of general relativity, which describes gravity as the warping of spacetime by energy and matter. An extremely powerful gravitational field, such as that produced by a spinning black hole, could in principle profoundly warp the fabric of existence so that spacetime bends back on itself. This would create a "closed timelike curve," or CTC, a loop that could be traversed to travel back in time.

Hawking and many other physicists find CTCs abhorrent, because any macroscopic object traveling through one would inevitably create paradoxes where cause and effect break down. In a model proposed by the theorist David Deutsch in 1991, however, the paradoxes created by CTCs could be avoided at the quantum scale because of the behavior of fundamental particles, which follow only the fuzzy rules of probability rather than strict determinism. "It's intriguing that you've got general relativity predicting these paradoxes, but then you consider them in quantum mechanical terms and the paradoxes go away," says University of Queensland physicist Tim Ralph. "It makes you wonder whether this is important in terms of formulating a theory that unifies general relativity with quantum mechanics."

Experimenting with a curve

Recently Ralph and his PhD student Martin Ringbauer led a team that experimentally simulated Deutsch's model of CTCs for the very first time, testing and confirming many aspects of the two-decades-old theory. Their findings are published in Nature Communications. Much of their simulation revolved around investigating how Deutsch's model deals with the “grandfather paradox,” a hypothetical scenario in which someone uses a CTC to travel back through time to murder her own grandfather, thus preventing her own later birth. (Scientific American is part of Nature Publishing Group.)

Deutsch's quantum solution to the grandfather paradox works something like this:

Instead of a human being traversing a CTC to kill her ancestor, imagine that a fundamental particle goes back in time to flip a switch on the particle-generating machine that created it. If the particle flips the switch, the machine emits a particle—the particle—back into the CTC; if the switch isn't flipped, the machine emits nothing. In this scenario there is no a priorideterministic certainty to the particle's emission, only a distribution of probabilities. Deutsch's insight was to postulate self-consistency in the quantum realm, to insist that any particle entering one end of a CTC must emerge at the other end with identical properties. Therefore, a particle emitted by the machine with a probability of one half would enter the CTC and come out the other end to flip the switch with a probability of one half, imbuing itself at birth with a probability of one half of going back to flip the switch. If the particle were a person, she would be born with a one-half probability of killing her grandfather, giving her grandfather a one-half probability of escaping death at her hands—good enough in probabilistic terms to close the causative loop and escape the paradox. Strange though it may be, this solution is in keeping with the known laws of quantum mechanics.

In their new simulation Ralph, Ringbauer and their colleagues studied Deutsch's model using interactions between pairs of polarized photons within a quantum system that they argue is mathematically equivalent to a single photon traversing a CTC. "We encode their polarization so that the second one acts as kind of a past incarnation of the first,” Ringbauer says. “So instead of sending a person through a time loop, they created a stunt double of the person and ran him through a time-loop simulator to see if the doppelganger emerging from a CTC exactly resembled the original person as he was in that moment in the past.

By measuring the polarization states of the second photon after its interaction with the first, across multiple trials the team successfully demonstrated Deutsch's self-consistency in action. "The state we got at our output, the second photon at the simulated exit of the CTC, was the same as that of our input, the first encoded photon at the CTC entrance," Ralph says. "Of course, we're not really sending anything back in time but [the simulation] allows us to study weird evolutions normally not allowed in quantum mechanics."

Those "weird evolutions" enabled by a CTC, Ringbauer notes, would have remarkable practical applications, such as breaking quantum-based cryptography through the cloning of the quantum states of fundamental particles. "If you can clone quantum states,” he says, “you can violate the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,” which comes in handy in quantum cryptography because the principle forbids simultaneously accurate measurements of certain kinds of paired variables, such as position and momentum. "But if you clone that system, you can measure one quantity in the first and the other quantity in the second, allowing you to decrypt an encoded message."

"In the presence of CTCs, quantum mechanics allows one to perform very powerful information-processing tasks, much more than we believe classical or even normal quantum computers could do," says Todd Brun, a physicist at the University of Southern California who was not involved with the team's experiment. "If the Deutsch model is correct, then this experiment faithfully simulates what could be done with an actual CTC. But this experiment cannot test the Deutsch model itself; that could only be done with access to an actual CTC."

Alternative reasoning

Deutsch's model isn’t the only one around, however. In 2009 Seth Lloyd, a theorist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, proposed an alternative, less radical model of CTCs that resolves the grandfather paradox using quantum teleportation and a technique called post-selection, rather than Deutsch's quantum self-consistency. With Canadian collaborators, Lloyd went on to perform successful laboratory simulations of his model in 2011. "Deutsch's theory has a weird effect of destroying correlations," Lloyd says. "That is, a time traveler who emerges from a Deutschian CTC enters a universe that has nothing to do with the one she exited in the future. By contrast, post-selected CTCs preserve correlations, so that the time traveler returns to the same universe that she remembers in the past."

This property of Lloyd's model would make CTCs much less powerful for information processing, although still far superior to what computers could achieve in typical regions of spacetime. "The classes of problems our CTCs could help solve are roughly equivalent to finding needles in haystacks," Lloyd says. "But a computer in a Deutschian CTC could solve why haystacks exist in the first place.”

Lloyd, though, readily admits the speculative nature of CTCs. “I have no idea which model is really right. Probably both of them are wrong,” he says. Of course, he adds, the other possibility is that Hawking is correct, “that CTCs simply don't and cannot exist." Time-travel party planners should save the champagne for themselves—their hoped-for future guests seem unlikely to arrive.

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Tuesday, September 2, 2014

Uranus

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Time Travel Simulation Resolves “Grandfather Paradox”

Time Travel Simulation Resolves “Grandfather Paradox”

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