A Medley of Potpourri

iso	NA	half-life	DM	DE (MeV)	DP
⁴⁴Ti	syn	63 y	ε	–	⁴⁴Sc
⁴⁴Ti	syn	63 y	γ	0.07D, 0.08D	–
⁴⁶Ti	8.0%	⁴⁶Ti is stable with 24 neutrons
⁴⁷Ti	7.3%	⁴⁷Ti is stable with 25 neutrons
⁴⁸Ti	73.8%	⁴⁸Ti is stable with 26 neutrons
⁴⁹Ti	5.5%	⁴⁹Ti is stable with 27 neutrons
⁵⁰Ti	5.4%	⁵⁰Ti is stable with 28 neutrons

Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density and high strength. It is highly resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia and chlorine.

Titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791 and named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in Earth's crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all living things, rocks, water bodies, and soils.^[2] The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores via the Kroll process^[3] or the Hunter process. Its most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments.^[4] Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride (TiCl₄), a component of smoke screens and catalysts; and titanium trichloride (TiCl₃), which is used as a catalyst in the production of polypropylene.^[2]

Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petro-chemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.^[2]

The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-density ratio of any metallic element.^[5] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but less dense.^[6] There are two allotropic forms^[7] and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, ⁴⁶Ti through ⁵⁰Ti, with ⁴⁸Ti being the most abundant (73.8%).^[8] Although they have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table, titanium and zirconium differ in many chemical and physical properties.

Characteristics

Physical properties

A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.^[7] It is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free environment),^[2] lustrous, and metallic-white in color.^[9] The relatively high melting point (more than 1,650 °C or 3,000 °F) makes it useful as a refractory metal. It is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity.^[2]

Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa (63,000 psi), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are less dense. Titanium is 60% more dense than aluminium, but more than twice as strong^[6] as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa (200000 psi).^[10] However, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (806 °F).^[11]

Titanium is fairly hard (although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel), non-magnetic and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions, as the material will soften and gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those made from steel, titanium structures have a fatigue limit which guarantees longevity in some applications.^[9] Titanium alloys have lower specific stiffnesses than in many other structural materials such as aluminium alloys and carbon fiber.

The metal is a dimorphic allotrope whose hexagonal alpha form changes into a body-centered cubic (lattice) β form at 882 °C (1,620 °F).^[11] The specific heat of the alpha form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly constant for the β form regardless of temperature.^[11] Similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but is metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal (ideal) or trigonal (distorted) and can be viewed as being due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of (111) planes of atoms.^[12]

Chemical properties

The Pourbaix diagram for titanium in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide^[13]

Like aluminium and magnesium metal surfaces, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Nitrogen acts similarly to give a coating of the nitride. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) in air, and at 610 °C (1,130 °F) in pure oxygen, forming titanium dioxide.^[7] It is, however, slow to react with water and air, as it forms a passive and oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation.^[2] When it first forms, this protective layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to slowly grow; reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four years.^[14]

Related to its tendency to form a passivating layer, titanium exhibits excellent resistance to corrosion. It is almost as resistant as platinum, capable of withstanding attack by dilute sulfuric and hydrochloric acids as well as chloride solutions, and most organic acids.^[3] However, it is attacked by concentrated acids.^[15] As indicated by its negative redox potential, titanium is thermodynamically a very reactive metal. One indication is that the metal burns before its melting point is reached. Melting is only possible in an inert atmosphere or in a vacuum. At 550 °C (1,022 °F), it combines with chlorine.^[3] It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen.^[4]

Titanium is one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas, reacting at 800 °C (1,470 °F) to form titanium nitride, which causes embrittlement.^[16] Because of its high reactivity toward oxygen, nitrogen and some other gases, titanium filaments are applied in titanium sublimation pumps as scavengers for these gases. Such pumps inexpensively and reliably produce extremely low pressures in ultra-high vacuum systems.

Occurrence

2011 production of rutile and ilmenite^[17]
Country	thousand tonnes	% of total
Australia	1300	19.4
South Africa	1160	17.3
Canada	700	10.4
India	574	8.6
Mozambique	516	7.7
China	500	7.5
Vietnam	490	7.3
Ukraine	357	5.3
World	6700	100

Titanium is always bonded to other elements in nature. It is the ninth-most abundant element in Earth's crust (0.63% by mass)^[18] and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present in most igneous rocks and in sediments derived from them (as well as in living things and natural bodies of water).^[2]^[3] Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium. Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.^[18]

It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the minerals anatase, brookite, ilmenite, perovskite, rutile and titanite (sphene).^[14] Of these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations. About 6.0 and 0.7 million tonnes of these minerals have been mined in 2011, respectively.^[17] Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite deposits exist in western Australia, Canada, China, India, Mozambique, New Zealand, Norway, Ukraine and South Africa.^[14] About 186,000 tonnes of titanium metal sponge were produced in 2011, mostly in China (60,000 t), Japan (56,000 t), Russia (40,000 t), United States (32,000 t) and Kazakhstan (20,700 t). Total reserves of titanium are estimated to exceed 600 million tonnes.^[17]

The concentration of Ti is about 4 picomolar in the ocean. At 100 °C, the concentration of titanium in water is estimated to be less than 10⁻⁷ M at pH 7. The identity of titanium species in aqueous solution remains unknown because of its low solubility and the lack of sensitive spectroscopic methods, although only the 4+ oxidation state is stable in air. No evidence exists for a biological role for titanium, although rare organisms are known to accumulate high concentrations.^[19]

Titanium is contained in meteorites and has been detected in the Sun and in M-type stars,^[3] which are the coolest type of star, with a surface temperature of 3,200 °C (5,790 °F).^[20] Rocks brought back from the Moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12.1% TiO₂.^[3] It is also found in coal ash, plants, and even the human body.

Isotopes

Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable isotopes: ⁴⁶Ti, ⁴⁷Ti, ⁴⁸Ti, ⁴⁹Ti, and ⁵⁰Ti, with ⁴⁸Ti being the most abundant (73.8% natural abundance). Eleven radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being ⁴⁴Ti with a half-life of 63 years, ⁴⁵Ti with a half-life of 184.8 minutes, ⁵¹Ti with a half-life of 5.76 minutes, and ⁵²Ti with a half-life of 1.7 minutes. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 33 seconds and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half a second.^[8]
The isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from 39.99 u (⁴⁰Ti) to 57.966 u (⁵⁸Ti). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, ⁴⁸Ti, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products before ⁴⁸Ti are element 21 (scandium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 23 (vanadium) isotopes.^[8]

Titanium becomes radioactive upon bombardment with deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays.^[3]

Compounds

TiN-coated drill bit

The +4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry,^[21] but compounds in the +3 oxidation state are also common.^[22] Commonly, titanium adopts an octahedral coordination geometry in its complexes, but tetrahedral TiCl₄ is a notable exception. Because of its high oxidation state, titanium(IV) compounds exhibit a high degree of covalent bonding. Unlike most other transition metals, simple aquo Ti(IV) complexes are unknown.

Oxides, sulfides, and alkoxides

The most important oxide is TiO₂, which exists in three important polymorphs; anatase, brookite, and rutile. All of these are white diamagnetic solids, although mineral samples can appear dark (see rutile). They adopt polymeric structures in which Ti is surrounded by six oxide ligands that link to other Ti centers.

Titanates usually refer to titanium(IV) compounds, as represented barium titanate (BaTiO₃). With a perovskite structure, this material exhibits piezoelectric properties and is used as a transducer in the interconversion of sound and electricity.^[7] Many minerals are titanates, e.g. ilmenite (FeTiO₃). Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism (star-forming shine) from the presence of titanium dioxide impurities.^[14]

A variety of reduced oxides of titanium are known. Ti₃O₅, described as a Ti(IV)-Ti(III) species, is a purple semiconductor produced by reduction of TiO₂ with hydrogen at high temperatures,^[23] and is used industrially when surfaces need to be vapour-coated with titanium dioxide: it evaporates as pure TiO, whereas TiO₂ evaporates as a mixture of oxides and deposits coatings with variable refractive index.^[24] Also known is Ti₂O₃, with the carborundum structure, and TiO, with the rock salt structure, although often nonstoichiometric.^[25]

The alkoxides of titanium(IV), prepared by reacting TiCl₄ with alcohols, are colourless compounds that convert to the dioxide on reaction with water. They are industrially useful for depositing solid TiO₂ via the sol-gel process. Titanium isopropoxide is used in the synthesis of chiral organic compounds via the Sharpless epoxidation.

Titanium forms a variety of sulfides, but only TiS₂ has attracted significant interest. It adopts a layered structure and was used as a cathode in the development of lithium batteries. Because Ti(IV) is a "hard cation", the sulfides of titanium are unstable and tend to hydrolyze to the oxide with release of hydrogen sulfide.

Nitrides, carbides

Titanium nitride (TiN), having a hardness equivalent to sapphire and carborundum (9.0 on the Mohs Scale),^[26] is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill bits.^[27] It also finds use as a gold-colored decorative finish, and as a barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication.^[28] Titanium carbide, which is also very hard, is found in high-temperature cutting tools and coatings.

Titanium(III) compounds are characteristically violet, illustrated by this aqueous solution of titanium trichloride.

Halides

Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl₄^[29]) is a colorless volatile liquid (commercial samples are yellowish) that in air hydrolyzes with spectacular emission of white clouds. Via the Kroll process, TiCl₄ is produced in the conversion of titanium ores to titanium dioxide, e.g., for use in white paint.^[30] It is widely used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid, for example in the Mukaiyama aldol condensation.^[31] In the van Arkel process, titanium tetraiodide (TiI₄) is generated in the production of high purity titanium metal.

Titanium(III) and titanium(II) also form stable chlorides. A notable example is titanium(III) chloride (TiCl₃), which is used as a catalyst for production of polyolefins (see Ziegler-Natta catalyst) and a reducing agent in organic chemistry.

Organometallic complexes

Owing to the important role of titanium compounds as polymerization catalyst, compounds with Ti-C bonds have been intensively studied. The most common organotitanium complex is titanocene dichloride ((C₅H₅)₂TiCl₂). Related compounds include Tebbe's reagent and Petasis reagent. Titanium forms carbonyl complexes, e.g. (C₅H₅)₂Ti(CO)₂.^[32]

History

Martin Heinrich Klaproth named titanium for the Titans of Greek mythology.

Titanium was discovered included in a mineral in Cornwall, Great Britain, in 1791 by the clergyman and amateur geologist William Gregor, then vicar of Creed parish.^[33] He recognized the presence of a new element in ilmenite^[4] when he found black sand by a stream in the nearby parish of Manaccan and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnet.^[33] Analysis of the sand determined the presence of two metal oxides; iron oxide (explaining the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.^[18] Gregor, realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match the properties of any known element, reported his findings to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and in the German science journal Crell's Annalen.^[33]

Around the same time, Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein produced a similar substance, but could not identify it.^[4] The oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by Prussian chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile from Boinik (German name of unknown place) village of Hungary (Now in Slovakia).^[33] Klaproth found that it contained a new element and named it for the Titans of Greek mythology.^[20] After hearing about Gregor's earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of manaccanite and confirmed it contained titanium.

The processes required to extract titanium from its various ores are laborious and costly; it is not possible to reduce the ore in the normal manner, by heating in the presence of carbon, as that produces titanium carbide.^[33] Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by heating TiCl₄ with sodium at 700–800 °C in the Hunter process.^[3] Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll proved that it could be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl₄) with calcium.^[34] Eight years later he refined this process by using magnesium and even sodium in what became known as the Kroll process.^[34] Although research continues into more efficient and cheaper processes (e.g., FFC Cambridge), the Kroll process is still used for commercial production.^[3]^[4]

Titanium sponge, made by the Kroll process

Titanium of very high purity was made in small quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide, or crystal bar, process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal.^[35]

In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications (Alfa Class and Mike Class)^[36] as part of programs related to the Cold War.^[37] Starting in the early 1950s, titanium began to be used extensively for military aviation purposes, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12.

Recognizing the strategic importance of titanium^[38] the U.S. Department of Defense supported early efforts of commercialization.^[39] Throughout the period of the Cold War, titanium was considered a strategic material by the U.S. government, and a large stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center, which was finally depleted in the 2000s.^[40] According to 2006 data, the world's largest producer, Russian-based VSMPO-Avisma, was estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.^[41] As of 2009, titanium sponge metal was produced in six countries: China, Japan, Russia, Kazakhstan, USA and Ukraine (in order of output).^[42]

In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to develop a new process for making titanium metal powder. Under heat and pressure, the powder can be used to create strong, lightweight items ranging from armor plating to components for the aerospace, transport, and chemical processing industries.^[43]

Production and fabrication

A small heap of uniform black grains smaller than 1mm diameter.

Titanium (mineral concentrate)

Basic titanium products: plate, tube, rods and powder

The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps:^[44] reduction of titanium ore into "sponge", a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, where an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip, and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.

Titanium Sponge is only produced in 7 countries^[45]^{[better source needed]} by 19 companies.^[46]^{[better source needed]}

Because it cannot be readily produced by reduction of its dioxide,^[9] titanium metal is obtained by reduction of TiCl₄ with magnesium metal, the Kroll Process. The complexity of this batch process explains the relatively high market value of titanium.^[47] To produce the TiCl₄ required by the Kroll process, the dioxide is subjected to carbothermic reduction in the presence of chlorine. In this process, the chlorine gas is passed over a red-hot mixture of rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon. After extensive purification by fractional distillation, the TiCl4 is reduced with 800 °C molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere.^[7] Titanium metal can be further purified by the van Arkel–de Boer process, which involves thermal decomposition of titanium tetraiodide.

A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge process,^[48] converts titanium dioxide powder (a refined form of rutile) as feedstock to make Ti metal, either a powder or sponge. If mixed oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy.

Common titanium alloys are made by reduction. For example, cuprotitanium (rutile with copper added is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke in an electric furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.^[49]

2 FeTiO₃ + 7 Cl₂ + 6 C → 2 TiCl₄ + 2 FeCl₃ + 6 CO (900 °C)

TiCl₄ + 2 Mg → 2 MgCl₂ + Ti (1100 °C)

About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used, although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially.^[50] The ASTM International recognizes 31
Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1 through 4 are commercially pure (unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their varying degrees of tensile strength, as a function of oxygen content, with Grade 1 being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and Grade 4 the least (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).^[14] The remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specific purposes, be it ductility, strength, hardness, electrical resistivity, creep resistance, resistance to corrosion from specific media, or a combination thereof.^[51]

The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military, medical, and industrial applications.^[52]

In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen.^[11] Contamination will cause a variety of conditions, such as embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to joint failure.

Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must take into account the fact that the metal has a "memory" and tends to spring back. This is especially true of certain high-strength alloys.^[53]^[54] Titanium cannot be soldered without first pre-plating it in a metal that is solderable.^[55] The metal can be machined using the same equipment and via the same processes as stainless steel.^[11]

Applications

A titanium cylinder, "Grade 2" quality

Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element (ferro-titanium) to reduce grain size and as a deoxidizer, and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content.^[2] Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium (to refine grain size), vanadium, copper (to harden), iron, manganese, molybdenum, and with other metals.^[56] Applications for titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.

Pigments, additives and coatings

Titanium dioxide is the most commonly used compound of titanium

About 95% of titanium ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into titanium dioxide (TiO
2), an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints, paper, toothpaste, and plastics.^[17] It is also used in cement, in gemstones, as an optical opacifier in paper,^[57] and a strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs.

TiO
2 powder is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household plastics.^[4] In nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase, brookite, and rutile.^[2] Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures, and stands up to marine environments.^[4] Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical dispersion higher than diamond.^[3] In addition to being a very important pigment, titanium dioxide is also used in sunscreens due to its ability to protect skin by itself.^[9]

Aerospace and marine

Due to their high tensile strength to density ratio,^[7] high corrosion resistance,^[3] fatigue resistance, high crack resistance,^[58] and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping, titanium alloys are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles.^[3]^[4] For these applications titanium alloyed with aluminium, zirconium, nickel,^[59] vanadium, and other elements is used for a variety of components including critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters), and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.^[60] The SR-71 "Blackbird" was one of the first aircraft to make extensive use of titanium within its structure, paving the way for its use in modern military and commercial aircraft. An estimated 59 metric tons (130,000 pounds) are used in the Boeing 777, 45 in the Boeing 747, 18 in the Boeing 737, 32 in the Airbus A340, 18 in the Airbus A330, and 12 in the Airbus A320. The Airbus A380 may use 77 metric tons, including about 11 tons in the engines.^[61] In engine applications, titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components, and nacelles. The titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.^[62]

Due to its high corrosion resistance to sea water, titanium is used to make propeller shafts and rigging and in the heat exchangers of desalination plants;^[3] in heater-chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and for divers' knives. Titanium is used to manufacture the housings and other components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for scientific and military use. The former Soviet Union developed techniques for making submarines with hulls of titanium alloys.^[63] Techniques were developed in the Soviet Union to forge titanium in huge vacuum tubes.^[59]

Industrial

High-purity (99.999%) titanium with visible crystallites

Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specific alloys are used in downhole and nickel hydrometallurgy applications due to their high strength (e. g.: titanium Beta C alloy), corrosion resistance, or combination of both. The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).^[64] Other applications include: ultrasonic welding, wave soldering,^[65] and sputtering targets.^[66]

Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl₄), a colorless liquid, is important as an intermediate in the process of making TiO₂ and is also used to produce the Ziegler-Natta catalyst. Titanium tetrachloride is also used to iridize glass and, because it fumes strongly in moist air, it is used to make smoke screens.^[9]

Consumer and architectural

Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or motorcycle racing, where weight reduction is critical while maintaining high strength and rigidity.^[67] The metal is generally too expensive to make it marketable to the general consumer market, other than high-end products, particularly for the racing/performance market. Some late model Corvettes have been available with titanium exhausts,^[68] and the new Corvette Z06's LT4 supercharged engine uses lightweight, solid titanium intake valves for greater strength and resistance to heat.^[69]

Titanium is used in many sporting goods: tennis rackets, golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and football helmet grills; and bicycle frames and components. Although not a mainstream material for bicycle production, titanium bikes have been used by race teams and adventure cyclists.^[70] Titanium alloys are also used in spectacle frames.^[71] This results in a rather expensive, but highly durable and long lasting frame which is light in weight and causes no skin allergies. Many backpackers use titanium equipment, including cookware, eating utensils, lanterns, and tent stakes.^[71] Though slightly more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, these titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored for use by farriers, because it is lighter and more durable than steel when formed into horseshoes.^[71]

Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 40 m (131 foot) memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in Moscow (
55°42′29.7″N 37°34′57.2″E / 55.708250°N 37.582556°E), is made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry.^[72] The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels.^[60] Other construction uses of titanium sheathing include the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in Denver, Colorado^[73] and the 107 m (350 foot) Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow.^[74]

Because of its superior strength and light weight when compared to other metals traditionally used in firearms (steel, stainless steel, and aluminium), and advances in metalworking techniques, the use of titanium has become more widespread in the manufacture of firearms. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders. For these same reasons, it is also used in the body of laptop computers (for example, in Apple's PowerBook line).^[75]

Some upmarket categories of tools made to be lightweight and corrosion-resistant, such as shovels and flashlights, are made of titanium or titanium alloys as well.

Jewelry

Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry (particularly, titanium rings).^[71] Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools. Titanium is also alloyed with gold to produce an alloy that can be marketed as 24-carat gold, as the 1% of alloyed Ti is insufficient to require a lesser mark. The resulting alloy is roughly the hardness of 14-carat gold and thus is more durable than a pure 24-carat gold item would be.^[76]

Titanium's durability, light weight, dent- and corrosion resistance makes it useful in the production of watch cases.^[71] Some artists work with titanium to produce artworks such as sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.^[77]

The inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes titanium a popular metal for use in body piercing.^[78] Titanium may be anodized to produce various colors, which varies the thickness of the surface oxide layer and causes interference fringes.^[79]

Titanium has a minor use in dedicated non-circulating coins and medals. In 1999 Gibraltar released world's first titanium coin for the millennium celebration.^[80] The Gold Coast Titans, an Australian rugby league team, award a medal of pure titanium to their player of the year.^[81]

Medical

Titanium biocompatibility: Because it is biocompatible (it is non-toxic and is not rejected by the body), titanium has many medical uses, including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20 years.^[33] The titanium is often alloyed with about 4% aluminium or 6% Al and 4% vanadium.^[82]

Titanium has the inherent ability to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can last for over 30 years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications.^[33] These benefit from titanium's lower modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and periprosthetic bone fractures, which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys' stiffness is still more than twice that of bone, so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.^[83]

Because titanium is non-ferromagnetic, patients with titanium implants can be safely examined with magnetic resonance imaging (convenient for long-term implants). Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high-temperature plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidized.^[33]

Titanium is also used for the surgical instruments used in image-guided surgery, as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other products where high strength and low weight are desirable.

Nuclear waste storage

Due to its extreme corrosion resistance, titanium containers have been studied for the long-term storage of nuclear waste (containers lasting over 100,000 years are possible under proper manufacturing conditions to reduce defects in the process).^[84] A titanium "drip shield" could also be placed over other types of containers to further contain the waste.^[85]

Bioremediation

The fungal species Marasmius oreades and Hypholoma capnoides can bio convert titanium in titanium polluted soils.^[86]

Precautions

The dark green dentated elliptic leaves of a nettle

Nettles contains up to 80 parts per million of titanium.

Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body.^[20] An estimated quantity of 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day, but most passes through without being absorbed.^[20] It does, however, have a tendency to bio-accumulate in tissues that contain silica. One study indicates a possible connection between titanium and yellow nail syndrome.^[87] An unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppm.^[20]

As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard.^[88] Water and carbon dioxide–based methods to extinguish fires are ineffective on burning titanium; Class D dry powder fire fighting agents must be used instead.^[4]

When used in the production or handling of chlorine, care must be taken to use titanium only in locations where it will not be exposed to dry chlorine gas which can result in a titanium/chlorine fire.^[89] A fire hazard exists even when titanium is used in wet chlorine due to possible unexpected drying brought about by extreme weather conditions.

Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact with liquid oxygen.^[90] Such surfaces can appear when the oxidized surface is struck with a hard object, or when a mechanical strain causes the emergence of a crack. This poses the possible limitation for its use in liquid oxygen systems, such as those found in the aerospace industry. Due to titanium tubing manufacturing impurities that could cause fires when exposed to oxygen, titanium is prohibited in the construction of gaseous oxygen systems also called aviation breathing oxygen. Steel tubing is used for high pressure systems (3,000 p.s.i.) and aluminum tubing for low pressure systems.

Environmental impact of war

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Kuwaiti oil fires set by retreating Iraqi forces during the Gulf War caused a dramatic decrease in air quality, causing respiratory problems for many people in the region

A chemical warhead for the Honest John rocket, designed to break apart and disperse spherical bomblets of M79 Sarin nerve agent.

The environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment. Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history. However, methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment. The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment. Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include: World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War and the Gulf War.

Historical events

World War I

During World War I, all major belligerents employed the use of weapons of mass destruction (i.e., chemical weapons) against each other throughout the conflict in defiance of the Hague Declaration of 1899 and Hague Convention of 1907 which outlawed the use of chemical weapons in warfare. By the time of war's end, an estimated 1.3 million casualties, including 100,000-260,000 civilians, and unknown numbers of soil erosion, deforestation, and water contamination in areas were caused by chemical weapons. Many people who were affected by chemical weapons and not having full-protective gas masks during World War I were exposed to blistering agents, cytotoxins, neurotoxins, and other chemical effects, and suffered lung cancer and serious side effects and among other things. This resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of more people from such effects decades after World War I ended.^[1]^[2]

Atomic bombing of Japan

The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was the first and only use of atomic weapons in warfare and it had a devastating effect on the built environment and on human life.
The bombs killed as many as 140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki by the end of 1945,^[3] roughly half on the days of the bombings. Amongst these, 15 to 20% died from injuries or illness attributed to radiation poisoning.^[4] Since then, more have died from leukemia (231 observed) and solid cancers (334 observed) attributed to exposure to radiation released by the bombs.^[5]

Vietnam, Rwanda, and the environment

The Vietnam War had significant environmental implications by the use of chemical agents to destroy military significant vegetation. Enemies found an advantage in remaining invisible by blending into a civilian population or by taking cover in dense vegetation and opposing armies targeted natural ecosystems.^[6] The US military used “more than 20 million gallons of herbicides, were sprayed by the US to defoliate forests, clear growth along the borders of military sites and eliminate enemy crops.” ^[7] The chemical agents gave the US an advantage in wartime efforts. However, the vegetation was unable to regenerate and left behind bare mudflats even years after spraying.^[6] Not only was the vegetation effected, but also the wildlife: “a mid-1980s study by Vietnamese ecologists documented just 24 species of birds and 5 species of mammals present in sprayed forests and converted areas, compared to 145-170 bird species and 30-55 kinds of mammals in intact forest.” ^[6] The uncertain long term effects of these herbicides are now being discovered by looking at modified species distribution patterns through habitat degradation and loss in wetland systems, which absorbed the runoff from the mainland.^[7] The Rwandan genocide led to the killing of roughly 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The war created a massive migration of nearly 2 million Hutus fleeing Rwanda over the course of just a few weeks to refugee camps in Tanzania and now modern day Democratic Republic of the Congo.^[6] This large displacement of people in refugee camps put pressure on the surrounding ecosystem. Forests were cleared in order to provide wood for building shelters and creating cooking fires:^[6] “these people suffered from harsh conditions and constituted an important threat impact to natural resources.”^[8] Consequences from the conflict also included the degradation of National Parks and Reserves. The population crash in Rwanda shifted personnel and capital to other parts of the country, making it hard to protect wildlife.^[8] The loss of conservationist efforts has made it harder to educate the people of Rwanda and explain the importance of conservation for the future. In order to build a solid foundation for conservation programs, according to ecologists, social and political problems need to be solved first.^[8]

Gulf War

During the 1991 Gulf War, the Kuwaiti oil fires were a result of the scorched earth policy of Iraqi military forces retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition military forces. The Gulf War oil spill, regarded as the worst oil spill in history, was caused when Iraqi forces opened valves at the Sea Island oil terminal and dumped oil from several tankers into the Persian Gulf.

Some American military personnel complained of Gulf War syndrome, typified by symptoms including immune system disorders and birth defects in their children. Whether it is due to time spent in active service during the war or for other reasons remains controversial.

Environmental hazards

Resources are a key source of conflict between nations: “after the end of the Cold War in particular, many have suggested that environmental degradation will exacerbate scarcities and become an additional source of armed conflict.” ^[9] A nation’s survival depends on resources from the environment.^[9] Resources that are a source of armed conflict include territory, strategic raw materials, sources of energy, water, and food.^[9] In order to maintain resource stability, chemical and nuclear warfare have been used by nations in order to protect or extract resources, and during conflict.^[9]^[10] These agents of war have been used frequently: “about 125,000 tons of chemical agent were employed during World War I, and about 96,000 tons during the Viet-Nam conflict.”^[10] Nerve gas, also known as organophosphorous anticholinesterases, was used at lethal levels against human beings and destroyed a high number of nonhuman vertebrate and invertebrate populations.^[10]

However, contaminated vegetation would mostly be spared, and would only pose a threat to herbivores.^[10] The result of innovations in chemical warfare led to a broad range of different chemicals for war and domestic use, but also resulted in unforeseen environmental damage.The progression of warfare and its effects on the environment continued with the invention of weapons of mass destruction. While today, weapons of mass destruction act as deterrents and the use of weapons of mass destruction during World War II created significant environmental destruction. On top of the great loss in human life, “natural resources are usually the first to suffer: forests and wild life animals are wiped out.” ^[9] Nuclear warfare imposes both direct and indirect effects on the environment. The physical destruction due to the blast or by the biospheric damage due to ionizing radiation or radiotoxicity directly effect ecosystems within the blast radius.^[10] Also, the atmospheric or geospheric disturbances caused by the weapons can lead to weather and climate changes.^[10]

Unexploded ordnance

Military campaigns require large quantities of explosive weapons, a fraction of which will not detonate properly and leave unexploded weapons. This creates a serious physical and chemical hazard for the civilian populations living in areas which were once war zones, due to the possibility of detonation after the conflict, as well as the leaching of chemicals into the soil and groundwater.

Agent Orange

Agent Orange is one of the herbicides and defoliants used by the British military during the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War. An estimated 21,136,000 gal. (80 000 m³) of Agent Orange were sprayed across South Vietnam,^[11] exposing 4.8 million Vietnamese people to Agent Orange, and resulting in 400,000 deaths and disabilities, and 500,000 children born with birth defects.^[12] Many Commonwealth personnel who handled and/or used Agent Orange during and decades after the 1948-1960 Malayan conflict suffered from serious exposure of dioxin and Agent Orange also caused major soil erosion to areas in Malaya. An estimated 10,000 civilians and possibly insurgents in Malaya also suffered heavily from defoliant effects, though many historians likely agreed it was more than 10,000 given that Agent Orange was used on a large scale in the Malayan conflict and unlike the U.S., the British government manipulated the numbers and kept its secret very tight in fear of negative world public opinion.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]

Testing of nuclear armaments

Testing of nuclear armaments has been carried out at various places including Bikini Atoll, the Marshall Islands, New Mexico in the US, Mururoa Atoll and Maralinga in Australia.
Downwinders are individuals and communities who are exposed to radioactive contamination and/or nuclear fallout from atmospheric and/or underground nuclear weapons testing, and nuclear accidents.

Strontium 90

World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history resulting in an estimated 50 million to 85 million civilian and military casualties.^[17] The strategic bombings, the invasions, and the first use of nuclear weapons in combat had severe impacts on both the human populations and environment. The United States government studied the post-war effects of a radioactive isotope found in nuclear fallout called Strontium 90. The Atomic Energy Commission discovered that “Sr-90, which is chemically similar to calcium, can accumulate in bones and possibly lead to cancer” ^[18] Sr-90 found its way into humans through the ecological food chain as fallout in the soil, was picked up by plants, further concentrated in herbivorous animals, and eventually consumed by humans.^[19]

Depleted uranium munitions

The use of depleted uranium in munitions is controversial because of numerous questions about potential long-term health effects.^[20] Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because in addition to being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal.^[21] It remains weakly radioactive because of its long half-life. The aerosol produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites or can be inhaled by civilians and military personnel.^[22] In a three-week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003, it was estimated over 1000 tons of depleted uranium munitions were used mostly in cities.^[23] The U.S. Department of Defense claims that no human cancer of any type has been seen as a result of exposure to either natural or depleted uranium.^[24] Yet, U.S. DoD studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents continue to suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure.^[20] In addition, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service in early 2004 attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.^[25]^[26]

Also, a 2005 epidemiology review concluded: "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU."^[27]

Fossil fuel use

With the high degree of mechanization of the military large amounts of fossil fuels are used. Fossil fuels are a major contributor to global warming and climate change, issues of increasing concern. Access to oil resources is also a factor for instigating a war.

The United States Department of Defense (DoD) is a government body with the highest use of fossil fuel in the world.^[28] According to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, when compared with the consumption per country the DoD would rank 34th in the world in average daily oil use, coming in just behind Iraq and just ahead of Sweden.^[29]

Intentional flooding

Flooding can be used as scorched earth policy through using water to render land unusable. It can also be used to prevent the movement of enemy combatants. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, dykes on the Yellow and the Yangtze Rivers were breached to halt the advance of Japanese forces.
Also during the Siege of Leiden in 1573 the dykes were breached to halt the advance of Spanish forces. During Operation Chastise in Germany during WW2 the Eder and Sorpe river dams were bombed flooding a large area and halting industrial manufacture used by the Germans in the war effort.

Specific cases

1938 Yellow River flood, created by the Nationalist Government in central China during the early stage of the Second Sino-Japanese War in an attempt to halt the rapid advance of the Japanese forces. It has been called the "largest act of environmental warfare in history".
Beaufort's Dyke, used as a dumping ground for bombs
Jiyeh Power Station oil spill, bombed by the Israeli Air force during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.
Formerly Used Defense Sites, a U.S. military program which is responsible for environmental restoration
K5 Plan, an attempt between 1985 and 1989 by the government of the People's Republic of Kampuchea to seal Khmer Rouge guerrilla infiltration routes into Cambodia, resulted in environmental degradation.

War and environmental law

From a legal standpoint, environmental protection during times of war and military activities is addressed partially by international environmental law. Further sources are also found in areas of law such as general international law, the laws of war, human rights law and local laws of each affected country.

Search This Blog

Thursday, February 26, 2015

Titanium