Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address issues of energy development including energy production, distribution and consumption. The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation
and other public policy techniques. Energy is a core component of
modern economies. A functioning economy requires not only labor and
capital but also energy, for manufacturing processes, transportation,
communication, agriculture, and more.
Although research is ongoing, the "human dimensions" of energy use are of increasing interest to business, utilities, and policymakers. Using the social sciences to gain insights into energy consumer behavior can empower policymakers to make better decisions about broad-based climate and energy options. This could facilitate more efficient energy use, renewable energy commercialization, and carbon emission reductions.
Access to energy is also critical for basic social needs, such as
lighting, heating, cooking, and health care. As a result, the price of
energy has a direct effect on jobs, economic productivity and business
competitiveness, and the cost of goods and services.
National energy policy
Measures used to produce an energy policy
A
national energy policy comprises a set of measures involving that
country's laws, treaties and agency directives. The energy policy of a
sovereign nation may include one or more of the following measures:
statement of national policy regarding energy planning, energy generation, transmission and usage
legislation on commercial energy activities (trading, transport, storage, etc.)
international energy sector treaties and alliances,
general international trade agreements,
special relations with energy-rich countries, including military presence and/or domination.
Frequently the dominant issue of energy policy is the risk of supply-demand mismatch (see: energy crisis). Current energy policies also address environmental issues,
particularly challenging because of the need to reconcile global
objectives and international rules with domestic needs and laws.
Some governments state explicit energy policy, but, declared or not,
each government practices some type of energy policy. Economic and
energy modelling can be used by governmental or inter-governmental
bodies as an advisory and analysis tool (see: economic model, POLES).
Factors within an energy policy
There
are a number of elements that are naturally contained in a national
energy policy, regardless of which of the above measures was used to
arrive at the resultant policy. The chief elements intrinsic to an
energy policy are:
What is the extent of energy self-sufficiency for this nation
Where future energy sources will derive
How future energy will be consumed (e.g. among sectors)
What fraction of the population will be acceptable to endure energy poverty
What are the goals for future energy intensity, ratio of energy consumed to GDP
What is the reliability standard for distribution reliability
What environmental externalities are acceptable and are forecast
What form of "portable energy" is forecast (e.g. sources of fuel for motor vehicles)
How will energy efficient hardware (e.g. hybrid vehicles, household appliances) be encouraged
How can the national policy drive province, state and municipal functions
What specific mechanisms (e.g. taxes, incentives, manufacturing standards) are in place to implement the total policy
What future consequences there will be for national security and foreign policy
State, province or municipal energy policy
Even within a state it is proper to talk about energy policies in plural. Influential entities, such as municipal
or regional governments and energy industries, will each exercise
policy. Policy measures available to these entities are lesser in sovereignty,
but may be equally important to national measures. In fact, there are
certain activities vital to energy policy which realistically cannot be
administered at the national level, such as monitoring energy conservation practices in the process of building construction, which is normally controlled by state-regional and municipal building codes (although can appear basic federal legislation).
Currently, the major issues in U.S. energy policy revolve around the
rapidly growing production of domestic and other North American energy
resources. The U.S. drive toward energy independence
and less reliance on oil and coal is fraught with partisan conflict
because these issues revolve around how best to balance both competing
values, such as environmental protection and economic growth, and the
demands of rival organized interests, such as those of the fossil fuel
industry and of the newer renewable energy businesses.
Europe
European Union
Although the European Union
has legislated, set targets, and negotiated internationally in the area
of energy policy for many years, and evolved out of the European Coal and Steel Community, the concept of introducing a mandatory common European Union energy policy was only approved at the meeting of the European Council on October 27, 2005 in London. Following this the first policy proposals, Energy for a Changing World, were published by the European Commission,
on January 10, 2007. The most well known energy policy objectives in
the EU are 20/20/20 objectives, binding for all EU Member States. The EU
is planning to increase the share of renewable energy in its final
energy use to 20%, reduce greenhouse gases by 20% and increase energy
efficiency by 20%.
Germany
In September 2010, the German government adopted a set of ambitious
goals to transform their national energy system and to reduce national
greenhouse gas emissions by 80 to 95% by 2050 (relative to 1990).
This transformation become known as the Energiewende. Subsequently, the government decided to the phase-out the nation's fleet of nuclear reactors, to be complete by 2022.
As of 2014, the country is making steady progress on this transition.
United Kingdom
The energy policy of the United Kingdom has achieved success in reducing energy intensity (but still really high), reducing energy poverty, and maintaining energy supply reliability to date. The United Kingdom has an ambitious goal to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
for future years, but it is unclear whether the programs in place are
sufficient to achieve this objective (the way to be so efficient as
France is still hard). Regarding energy self sufficiency, the United
Kingdom policy does not address this issue, other than to concede
historic energy self sufficiency is currently ceasing to exist (due to the decline of the North Sea oil production). With regard to transport, the United Kingdom historically has a good policy record encouraging public transport
links with cities, despite encountering problems with high speed
trains, which have the potential to reduce dramatically domestic and
short-haul European flights. The policy does not, however, significantly
encourage hybrid vehicle use or ethanol fuel use, options which represent viable short term means to moderate rising transport fuel consumption. Regarding renewable energy, the United Kingdom has goals for wind and tidal energy. The White Paper on Energy, 2007, set the target that 20% of the UK's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020.
The Soviet Union and Russia
The Soviet Union was the largest energy provider in the world until the late 1980s. Russia, one of the world's energy superpowers, is rich in natural energy resources, the world’s leading net energy exporter, and a major supplier to the European Union. The main document defining the energy policy of Russia
is the Energy Strategy, which initially set out policy for the period
up to 2020, later was reviewed, amended and prolonged up to 2030. While
Russia has also signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol. Numerous scholars note that Russia uses its energy exports as a foreign policy instrument towards other countries.
Asia
India
The energy policy of India is characterized by trades between four major drivers:
Rapidly growing economy, with a need for dependable and reliable supply of electricity, gas, and petroleum products;
Increasing household incomes, with a need for affordable and adequate supply of electricity, and clean cooking fuels;
Limited domestic reserves of fossil fuels,
and the need to import a vast fraction of the gas, crude oil, and
petroleum product requirements, and recently the need to import coal as
well; and
Indoor, urban and regional environmental impacts, necessitating the
need for the adoption of cleaner fuels and cleaner technologies.
In recent years, these challenges have led to a major set of continuing reforms, restructuring and a focus on energy conservation.
Thailand
The energy policy of Thailand
is characterized by 1) increasing energy consumption efficiency, 2)
increasing domestic energy production, 3) increasing the private
sector's role in the energy sector, 4) increasing the role of market
mechanisms in setting energy prices. These policies have been
consistent since the 1990s, despite various changes in governments. The
pace and form of industry liberalization and privatization has been
highly controversial.
Bangladesh
The first National Energy Policy (NEP) of Bangladesh was formulated
in 1996 by the Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral resources to ensure
proper exploration, production, distribution and rational use of energy
resources to meet the growing energy demands of different zones,
consuming sectors and consumers groups on a sustainable basis. With
rapid change of global as well as domestic situation, the policy was
updated in 2004. The updated policy included additional objectives
namely to ensure environmentally sound sustainable energy development
programmes causing minimum damage to environment, to encourage public
and private sector participation in the development and management of
energy sector and to bring the entire country under electrification by
the year 2020.
Oceania
Australia
Australia's energy policy features a combination of coal power stations and hydro electricity plants. The Australian government has decided not to build nuclear power plants, although it is one of the world's largest producers of uranium.
Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI), generally referred to as Habitat for Humanity or simply Habitat, is an international, non-governmental, and nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1976 by Linda and Millard Fuller. Habitat has been devoted to building "simple, decent, and affordable" housing, a self-described "Christian housing ministry," and has addressed the issues of poverty housing all over the world. The international operational headquarters are located in Americus, Georgia, United States, with the administrative headquarters located in Atlanta.
There are five area offices located around the world: United States and
Canada; Africa and the Middle East (located in Pretoria, South Africa);
Asia-Pacific (Manila, Philippines); Europe and Central Asia
(Bratislava, Slovakia); and Latin America and the Caribbean (San Jose,
Costa Rica).
Community-level Habitat offices act in partnership with and on
behalf of Habitat for Humanity International. In the United States,
these local offices are called Habitat affiliates; outside the United
States, Habitat operations are managed by national offices. Each
affiliate and national office is an independently run, nonprofit organization.
Affiliates and national offices coordinate all aspects of Habitat home
building in their local area, including fundraising, building site selection, partner family selection and support, house construction, and mortgage servicing.
The mission statement of Habitat for Humanity is "Seeking to put
God's love into action, Habitat for Humanity brings people together to
build homes, communities and hope". Homes are built using volunteer labor and Habitat makes no profit on the sales. In some locations outside the United States, Habitat for Humanity charges interest to protect against inflation.
This policy has been in place since 1986. Habitat has helped more than 4
million people construct, rehabilitate or preserve more than 800,000
homes since its founding in 1976, making Habitat the largest
not-for-profit builder in the world.
History
Habitat for Humanity traces its origins to the time Linda and Millard Fuller spent at Koinonia Farm in 1965. The couple had a successful business in Montgomery, Alabama before they started a new life of Christian service.
Qualifications for home ownership
A 2007 construction site in the United States
According to the official website,
The affiliate's family selection
committee chooses homeowners based on their level of need, their
willingness to become partners in the program and their ability to repay
the loan. Every affiliate follows a nondiscriminatory policy of family
selection. Neither race nor religion is a factor in choosing the
families who receive Habitat houses.
There are several checks and balances in place to protect both Habitat and the potential homeowner:
Habitat for Humanity performs an extensive background check
on potential homeowners, including character references, employer
interviews, and audit of finances. The applicants are required to sign
release forms authorizing Habitat for Humanity to perform this
background check. This ensures that Habitat's risk is reasonable when
selling a home and that the applicant family is in a suitable financial
position to take on the responsibility of a mortgage.
There are typically a First and a Second Mortgage. The Second
Mortgage is put in place to protect any equity that is left that is not
captured in the first mortgage. The homeowners pay down the first
mortgage, and after a stated period of time (which varies from affiliate
to affiliate) of living in the same home, the Second Mortgage is
forgiven (however, it is not always forgiven). However, The Right of
First Refusal stays in force until the mortgage is paid in full.
Homeowners are usually expected to put approximately 500hours of "sweat equity" into their own or other project homes, although this amount may vary by location, the number of wage-earning
adults in each family, and the recipients' health issues. This sweat
equity acts as the down payment on the home. Every hour spent earning
this sweat equity must be approved and signed off on by an official
Habitat for Humanity representative. Sweat equity has no monetary value
and cannot be 'refunded'.
Once construction on the home is finished and the sweat equity is
completed in full, the homeowner purchases the home with a 0% to 2%
interest mortgage (in the United States). With monthly payments
(including taxes and insurance) that do not exceed 30% of the
household's monthly income.
Mortgage payments from homeowners are deposited into a locally
administered "Fund for Humanity", the proceeds of which go toward future
construction. In an effort to discourage predatory lenders from
targeting Habitat homeowner families, mortgage agreements require the
Habitat for Humanity affiliate the right of first refusal.
Until the mortgage is paid in full, a Habitat home has no equity and
can only be sold back to Habitat for Humanity. Should a homeowner family
decide to sell their home during the period of their mortgage, the
affiliate will buy it back at market value. Often affiliates will have a
shared appreciation model that will allow the affiliate to recapture a
portion of the equity in the home depending on the time the family lived
in the home and paid on the mortgage.
The typically no interest mortgage payments permit a family the
freedom to manage their finances more effectively, the end goal being to
provide a 'hand up' and not a 'hand out' as it were. In some locations,
attendance at money management courses is mandatory for potential
homeowners.
Building and other affiliate operations
At
Habitat's Global Village and Discovery Center in Americus, Georgia,
visitors can experience the devastating nature of poverty housing and
see life-size Habitat houses from around the world
Habitat relies on volunteer labor in order to construct simple and
affordable homes with its partner families, as well as to build community and civil society in the areas in which it works. Many churches
and other houses of worship (synagogues, temples, mosques etc.) sponsor
houses and provide a large amount of the volunteers from their
congregations. Some corporations
and businesses that value good corporate citizenship provide financial
support to the projects and/or donate materials for use in construction.
Many politicians and celebrities have volunteered with Habitat,
reflecting its profile as a highly regarded non-profit.
Green building
Habitat
builds simple houses with locally appropriate materials. In many
communities, Habitat affiliates and national offices are exploring areas
of green building, including energy efficiency and sustainability. In the United States, many affiliates are building homes that are LEED certified. In 2010, Habitat for Humanity Tajikistan won a national Global Energy Award for their resource-saving bio-sand water filter project.
Tithe
Habitat
affiliates and national offices contribute a percentage of the
unrestricted funds they raise locally to be used in building homes by a
Habitat national office overseas. For instance, Habitat New Zealand's
tithe helps to support an equal number of housing outcomes abroad,
predominantly in the Pacific region.
Charging interest
Habitat
homeowners in the United States and Canada pay no interest on their
no-profit mortgages. Some Habitat for Humanity affiliates outside the
United States adjust the no-profit loans to compensate for the inflation
rate in their area, with the goal that "the repayments from one house
should ideally build another house of the same design".
Habitat ReStores
Habitat ReStores are retail
outlets that sell new and used building and household materials donated
by small businesses, large companies, job sites, and individuals.
Proceeds from ReStores help local affiliates fund the construction of
Habitat houses within the community. Many affiliates across the United
States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand operate successful
ReStores—some of which raise enough funds to build an additional 10 or
more houses per year.
Many ReStores cover the administrative costs of the Habitat affiliate
so that 100% of donor funds can be put toward home construction and
rehabilitation projects.
Ongoing programs
Habitat
for Humanity International develops and supports special programs to
engage volunteers from all walks of life in Habitat's mission and work.
Solid Ground
Solid
Ground is a global advocacy campaign of Habitat for Humanity
International focused on improving access to land for shelter. The Solid
Ground campaign has four sub-themes: secure tenure, gender equality,
slum upgrading, and disaster resilience. Through the Solid Ground
campaign, Habitat for Humanity and partner organizations are working in
37 countries around the world to change land policy and systems at all
levels of government.
A Brush With Kindness
Habitat for Humanity's A Brush With Kindness
is a locally operated program serving low-income homeowners who
struggle to maintain the exterior of their homes. The program is a
holistic approach to providing affordable housing and assisting
communities as well as families. Groups of volunteers help homeowners
with exterior maintenance. This typically includes painting, minor
exterior repairs, landscaping, weatherization and exterior clean-up.
Global Village Trips
As
suggested by the name, Habitat for Humanity International places a
strong emphasis on building homes around the world. Volunteers today can
build with Habitat affiliates in many locations on Global Village
Trips.
After having gone through training, trip leaders organize travel plans
with the support of the Americus-headquartered Global Village
Department, first formally established in 1988. Participants from all
over are then able to register for trips to their destination of choice.
Teams generally number between eight and fifteen, with trips usually
lasting between nine and fourteen days.
According to the website, Global Village Trips offer volunteers the opportunity:
to experience another culture while making a difference
in the lives of others ... work alongside members of the host community
in building decent, affordable housing ... [and]help raise awareness of
the burden of poverty housing and create a true global village of love,
community, homes and hope.
National Service
National Service refers to national service programs that are funded by the Corporation for National and Community Service.
The goal of the Habitat for Humanity National Service program is to
help local Habitat affiliates operate more efficiently and effectively
by maximizing existing volunteers, increasing capacity for new
volunteers and most importantly, meeting the housing needs of
communities by building more houses for low-income families.
AmeriCorps
is a network of national service programs that engage more than
75,000 Americans each year in intensive service to meet critical needs
in education, public safety, health and the environment. Habitat for
Humanity International was one of the first nonprofits contacted by the
Corporation for National and Community Service when AmeriCorps was being
formed in 1993. In the 2008–2009 program year, over 500 AmeriCorps
members at affiliates all over the country will help build nearly
2,000 houses and recruit and retain nearly 200,000 community volunteers.
Those volunteers will provide an estimated 1,600,000 volunteer hours.
The members themselves will contribute 850,000 hours.
RV Care-A-Vanners
RV
Care-A-Vanners is a volunteer program in which volunteers travel in
their personal recreational vehicles, making stops at local Habitat
affiliates to assist in house construction and renovations. RV
Care-A-Vanner volunteers each pay their own expenses, which may be tax
deductible.
Many RV Care-A-Vanners help local Habitat affiliates raise the
awareness of poverty housing and homelessness by speaking to churches,
civic groups and local media. Individual Care-A-Vanners often make
donations to their local Habitat affiliate and some even organize
fund-raising teams and sponsor entire houses.
Women Build
Originating
in 1991 with a Charlotte, North Carolina home built entirely by a crew
of female volunteers, Habitat's Women Build program encourages women to
make a difference by building homes and communities. Women Build
projects provide an environment in which women can feel comfortable
learning construction skills they might not otherwise have the
opportunity to learn. Globally, more than 1,400 homes have been
completed by Women Build volunteers.
Women all over the United States participate in National Women Build Week. The week-long build leading up to Mother's Day
is designed to showcase the skills of Women Build volunteers and to
motivate new volunteers to help families and change communities.
Lowe's
is a major sponsor and underwriter of Women Build, and has generously
supported each National Women Build Week. In addition to competitive
grant opportunities, Lowe's offers a series of free how-to clinics for
U.S. Women Build affiliates.
Youth Programs
Habitat
for Humanity's Youth Programs seek to involve young people, ages 5 to
25, in Habitat's mission and work. In accordance with U.S. federal
guidelines, youth must be at least 16 years old to be on an active
construction site, and must be 18 years old to engage in certain build
activities.
Habitat's Youth Programs include programs such as:
Campus chapters
A
campus chapter is a student-led, student-initiated organization on a
high school or college campus that partners with the local Habitat
affiliate to fulfill the four functions of a campus chapter. The four
functions of a campus chapter are: building, fundraising, advocating and
educating.
Collegiate Challenge
Habitat for Humanity runs a year-round alternative break program known as Collegiate Challenge for student groups age 16 to 25.
Although summer, fall, and winter break trips are available, most
participants go during their spring break. Collegiate Challenge
participants travel to host sites throughout the United States and spend
one week working in partnership with the local Habitat affiliate, the
local community, and partner families to help eliminate poverty housing
in the area. Host affiliates provide housing for the groups, as well as a
place to shower and cook meals for the week. More than
14,000 volunteers took part in Collegiate Challenge in 2011, making it
one of the world's largest alternative break programs. Since its
inception in 1989, nearly 240,000 students have participated in
Collegiate Challenge and have donated more than $25 million to Habitat
for Humanity affiliates.
Learn and Build Experience
For
one week during the summer, students ages 16 to 18 can experience
Habitat's work outside of their communities. In addition to a week of
building, students also learn about the need for Habitat through
educational activities.
Youth United
Youth
United is a Habitat for Humanity program run by youth and for youth
ages 5 to 25. It brings young people together from all walks of life to
play active roles in transforming their communities. Youth United
mobilizes young people to sponsor and build a house with their local
Habitat affiliate.
Annual events
Jimmy & Rosalynn Carter Work Project
Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter
became involved with Habitat for Humanity in 1984 and has since become
its highest profile proponent. He has been involved in fund-raising and
publicity as well as actual homebuilding, taking part in the annual
Jimmy Carter Work Project "blitz build".
In 2008, Habitat for Humanity celebrated the 25th annual building
project with the Carters and renamed it to include Mrs. Carter. The
Jimmy & Rosalynn Carter Work Project focused on supporting the Gulf
Coast community seeking to rebuild after hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
Despite periodic downpours, volunteers got most of the work done during
one week in June to finish building and fixing 60 houses and frame
48 more.
In November 2009, volunteers joined Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter in the Mekong River
region of Southeast Asia. Houses were built in the countries of
Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Yunnan Province in China. The
week-long project served nearly 166 families. It also began a five-year Habitat for Humanity initiative to work with 50,000 families across the five countries.
Home Builders Blitz
During
Home Builders Blitz 2008, more than 1,000 building industry
professionals in 110 Habitat for Humanity affiliates built 263 new homes
across the United States. This was the second national Home Builders
Blitz program, which was begun on the local level in 2002 in Raleigh, North Carolina. Since then, the professional homebuilders industry has supported Habitat by building more than 800 homes.
Tom Gipson, a Habitat volunteer and professional homebuilder who
started the Home Builder's Blitz program, was named the "Ultimate
Volunteer" in a 2009 contest by ABC's "The View".
Habitat for Humanity AmeriCorps Build-a-Thon
The
AmeriCorps Build-a-Thon is an annual signature event that brings
together AmeriCorps members and alumni in a week long blitz build. The
Build-a-Thon provides the host affiliate an opportunity to advance and
highlight local house-building efforts. It also serves as an annual
meeting of AmeriCorps volunteers who might otherwise lack any
opportunity to meet.
The event is held across the United States and highlights a
different Habitat affiliate each year. In the past, Build-a-Thons have
occurred in Cedar Rapids, Iowa; the Gulf Coast; Dallas, Texas; Mobile
County, Alabama; and Jacksonville, Florida.
The 2010, Habitat AmeriCorps Build-a-Thon was held in Cedar
Rapids, Iowa, hosted by Cedar Valley Habitat for Humanity. This was the
second consecutive year that Cedar Valley Habitat hosted the event. More
than 500 Habitat for Humanity AmeriCorps National and AmeriCorps VISTA
members from across the country came together to build, rehabilitate and
repair more than 20 homes. In 2015, the Build-a-Thon was held in New
Orleans in remembrance of Hurricane Katrina.
Other special initiatives
Habitat's Gulf Coast Recovery
Habitat initiated a special program to help restore housing to the areas affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
The effort was focused on getting local affiliates in the area back on
their feet and prepared to build for their communities. It also became a
catalyst for other organizations, like the St. Bernard Project,
corporations and the government to provide help and support in
rebuilding the area and has received considerable national media
attention. Habitat restored around 300 homes for Katrina efforts.
As part of Operation Home Delivery, housing components were assembled in nearby less-affected locations such as Jackson, Mississippi,
allowing much of the construction to be accomplished while basic
infrastructure was being restored. Pre-constructed components were then
shipped to the affected areas and built at a faster rate. Within two
months of the time of the disaster, construction had begun on houses in
the Louisiana cities of Covington and Slidell, near New Orleans.
Harry Connick Jr., and Branford Marsalis served as honorary chairs of Habitat's hurricane rebuilding program, and one of the many projects along the Gulf Coast is the Musicians' Village at New Orleans Habitat for Humanity.
Habitat's Efforts in Haiti
On 12 January 2010, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti just 10
miles west of the capital, Port-au-Prince. The earthquake damaged almost
190,000 houses, of which 105,000 were entirely devastated. Of the more
than two million affected survivors, 500,000 are still displaced today.
Soon after the earthquake, Habitat set a goal of serving 50,000 families
over five years, helping them move toward safe, secure and permanent
places to call home.
Habitat has reached numerous milestones after the earthquake
including over 155 houses as well as another 100 houses planned to be
built starting 23 November of this year. Aside from direct building of
housing, more than 4,000 families received transitional or upgraded
shelters, more than 350 houses were repaired and rehabilitated, more
than 24,500 emergency shelter kits were distributed, and more than
12,000 damage assessments were conducted (Habitat For Humanity
International). During this time, an entire community was transformed
and lives were changed. More than 4,450 Haiti citizens were trained in
construction techniques, financial literacy, disaster risk reduction and
business development, which resulted in job opportunities for over 700
Haitians (Habitat For Humanity International).
Habitat's Bangladesh Restoration
Habitat played an integral in the restoration of Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr
devastated 31 districts. A partnership with Japan Platform to help
build transitional shelters was on-going when the disaster hit in
November 2007. All phases of this project completed at the end of
February 2009.
Habitat responded to the cyclone by pledging $250000 to provide
technical assistance. Prior to the construction of transitional homes,
immediate necessities such as food, water and medicine were distributed
to affected families.
A Habitat Resource Center was built in phase one for technical
planning, coordination and management of the entire project. It also
served as the manufacturing and storage center for construction
materials. A total of 480 houses were built at the end of a 3 phase
construction process. Each house was provided with proper sanitation
using contributions from UNICEF
Bangladesh and HFH Great Britain. These transitional shelters were
designed to be built by volunteers and unskilled workers in about eight
hours on an area that had been prepared by families. This shelter
provides a strong and cyclone-resistant core structure to protect
residents from severe weather. Extensions to the home when the family
has the financial means can be done by adding walling to the existing
structure.
In bid to raise the local awareness of these transitional homes,
HFH Bangladesh organized a series of training and familiarisation
workshops for locals. 16 sessions were held between March and December
2008.
In total, 12 communities were worked on by HFH Bangladesh. Structures had been built in the regions of Ghotoker Andua,
Andua, Kalagachiya, Pipra Khali and Mirzaganj villages in Mirzaganj
Union. In the Amragachia Union the regions of Uttar Amragachia, Dakkhin
Amragachia, Shoilabunia, Kismat Shoilabunia and Amragachi villages also
had structures built there.
Making it Better in the Long Term with Solar
There
are many projects that go hand in hand with the house building projects
that allow these homes to supply their own electricity through the use
of solar energy. U.S. companies such as Pacific Gas and Electric Company have partnered with Habitat for Humanity to provide complete solar grids for several homes. Other solar projects, mostly in the U.S., like one in San Francisco, as well as efforts of individual citizens are trying to make a difference by raising funds to get more solar homes built.
Who Says You Can't Go Home
The video for rock band Bon Jovi's song "Who Says You Can't Go Home"
features Habitat for Humanity volunteers as well as the band building
homes as part of Habitat for Humanity in Philadelphia, close to Bon
Jovi's native New Jersey. It reflects Jon Bon Jovi's
dedication to the organization and highlights the importance of
community unity, faith, and involvement. The popularity of Bon Jovi
increased Habitat's exposure and influenced new volunteers to donate
their time and money to Habitat.
Habitat Bicycle Challenge
The Habitat Bicycle Challenge (HBC), a nine-week, coast-to-coast bicycle trip undertaken to raise funds for Habitat for Humanity of Greater New Haven
and to increase awareness of Habitat for Humanity in general, took
place annually from 1995 to 2007. Prior to embarking in June on the
4,000-mile (6,400 km) trek, participants engaged in a seven-month
fundraising campaign for Habitat for Humanity of Greater New Haven. Once
on the road, they served as roaming advertisements for Habitat and gave
nightly presentations explaining Habitat's mission to their hosts,
usually church congregations. They also took part in builds with local
Habitat chapters along the way. At its height, HBC attracted about
90 participants a year, all aged 18 to 24 and about half coming from Yale University. Each rider traveled one of three routes: New Haven to San Francisco, New Haven to Portland, or New Haven to Seattle.
By 2004 HBC had become the single largest yearly fundraiser for any
Habitat affiliate in the world, raising about $400,000 a year. However,
amid growing safety concerns, Habitat for Humanity of Greater New Haven
was forced to announce the cancellation of HBC in September 2007.
Bike and Build,
a similar program, was founded in 2002 by a former HBC rider. Though
not directly affiliated with Habitat for Humanity, it carries on the
legacy of the Habitat Bicycle Challenge.
Appetite for Construction Tour
In the fall of 2007, alternative rock bands Switchfoot and Relient K went on the Appetite for Construction Tour,
partnering with Habitat while raising awareness for the organization
and donating a dollar per ticket sold. The tour was highly successful,
raising over US$100,000 for donation to the cause.
The Wall Project
Wesley College, Melbourne
is carrying out a joint fundraising and awareness program through
theatrical production and is aiming to raise money to build education
facilities in Afghanistan.
Criticism
Safety of volunteers
Like
much construction activity, which carries inherent risk, Habitat for
Humanity construction has led to some serious injuries or deaths to
volunteers.
Consequently, safety is a priority and important consideration on
Habitat construction sites, and volunteers are given safety orientations
and they are required to work with skilled construction supervisors on
the build sites.
Depending on the type of operation, OSHA rules may be generally
applicable to Habitat construction sites, similar to for-profit
builders. In some cases, Habitat affiliates have local partnerships with
OSHA on safety programs.
Cost-effectiveness
An article in the Weekly Standard, an American conservative opinion magazine, questioned the cost-effectiveness of Habitat building projects. To estimate cost effectiveness, all costs associated with building a Habitat home must be used, including the cost of volunteer time and training.
For houses constructed by foreign volunteers, travel and associated
costs paid by the volunteers are also significant. Including these costs
raises the question whether building a house this way is an efficient
use of resources. Particularly in developing countries where labor is
relatively inexpensive, unemployment is high, and local currency is
cheap, purchasing local labor and supplies may result in an increase in
the number of houses built.
Cost-effectiveness, however, is not Habitat for Humanity's only
concern, and additional benefits arise from the Habitat model that
differentiate it from other low-cost housing. For example, involving
volunteers in the construction of houses not only makes the homes more
affordable, but it also builds community understanding, awareness and
support for affordable housing and generates revenue for local Habitat
organizations. Focusing solely on cost effectiveness also does not
address another important aspect—the education and training of the
homebuyers. Habitat's homebuyers are also involved in the construction
of their home and the homes of others in the program.
Many Habitat organizations also provide training in budget management
and other skills. These requirements, known as "sweat equity", teach
low-income homebuyers valuable construction and other skills that help
them to maintain their home over the long-term. Another major aspect of
Habitat's program is Habitat's revolving "Fund for Humanity." Habitat
does not give homes away; rather, in addition to contributing sweat
equity, Habitat homebuyers pay an affordable no-profit mortgage based on
their ability to pay. These mortgage payments are used to support
building additional homes in partnership with low-income families, thus
contributing to the sustainability of Habitat's homebuilding program.
Habitat has been criticized for its slow and inefficient
rebuilding efforts along the Gulf Coast after Hurricanes Katrina and
Rita.
After 18 months, Habitat had completed under 500 homes. A major factor
was Habitat's reliance on working through local affiliates, who are not
equipped to undertake large-scale rebuilding efforts.
Work continued and Habitat completed its 1,000th hurricane-response
home by May 2007. By the fifth anniversary of Katrina, more than 2,716
homes had been completed. In total, Habitat's Gulf Coast affiliates
built, repaired or rehabbed more than 5,400 houses as part of the
hurricanes Katrina and Rita effort.
Habitat affiliates in the region have remained some of the
largest homebuilders in their areas and have received numerous awards
and acknowledgements for their work in building quality homes.
Partnering with low-income families
Families are required to show an ability to pay for their home in addition to the need for housing. With these requirements, homeless and low-income
families may fail to qualify for a Habitat home. Most American Habitat
affiliates perform credit checks and criminal record checks on
applicants before partnering with them for the construction of a home.
Some critics therefore allege that Habitat misrepresents the nature of
its work by partnering with families that might be considered nearly
"middle-income." To address this, many Habitat affiliates in the United States partner only with families that fall below the government-set "poverty line" for their area. The current poverty rate is measured according to the United States Department of Health and Human Services Poverty Guidelines.
The credit and income requirements help ensure that Habitat applicants are able to maintain their houses. Foreclosure
rates on Habitat houses are hard to measure. While Habitat claims a
foreclosure rate of less than 2%, this number is unsubstantiated due to
the fact that Habitat properties are not initially deeded to the buyer,
and revert to the local Habitat chapter if a buyer defaults. The
homeowners' monthly mortgage payments are used to build more Habitat
homes.
Ousting of the founder
Habitat's founder, Millard Fuller,
and his wife were dismissed by the Habitat board of directors on 31
January 2005, citing "a pattern of ongoing public comments and
communications by the Fullers that have been divisive and disruptive to
the organization's work"
after Fuller was accused by a former female employee of "suggestive
comments and inappropriate touching" during a ride to the Atlanta
airport in 2003. The Habitat board investigated Fuller for sexual
harassment but found "insufficient proof of inappropriate conduct". Some
Fuller supporters claim that the firing was due to a change in
corporate culture.
Before Fuller's termination, attempts were made by former President Jimmy Carter
to broker an agreement that would allow Fuller to retire with his
$79,000 salary intact; when Fuller was found to have violated the non-disclosure portion of this agreement, he was subsequently fired.
Conflicts with affiliates
In
January 2008 a dispute arose between the parent organization and an
unspecified number of local Habitat for Humanity affiliate organizations
over the terms of their cooperation agreement. These local affiliates
contended that the agreement gave the international organization too
much power over the assets and operations of the local chapters. One of
the affiliates, Habitat for Humanity of San Antonio, reached an
agreement with HFHI in July 2008 to "continue working together in their
efforts to make affordable housing possible".
By the end of 2008, the overwhelming majority of Habitat's U.S. affiliates had signed the agreement.
An energy crisis is any significant bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy. In literature, it often refers to one of the energy sources used at a certain time and place, in particular those that supply national electricity grids or those used as fuel in vehicles.
Industrial development and population growth have led to a surge in the global demand for energy in recent years. In the 2000s, this new demand — together with Middle East tension, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, dwindling oil reserves, concerns over peak oil, and oil price speculation — triggered the 2000s energy crisis, which saw the price of oil reach an all-time high of $147.30 a barrel in 2008.
Causes
The gasoline shortages of World War II brought about the resurgence of horse-and-wagon delivery.
Most energy crisis have been caused by localized shortages, wars and
market manipulation. Some have argued that government actions like tax
hikes, nationalisation of energy companies, and regulation of the energy
sector, shift supply and demand of energy away from its economic
equilibrium. However, the recent historical energy crisis listed below
were not caused by such factors. Market failure is possible when monopoly manipulation of markets occurs. A crisis can develop due to industrial actions like union organized strikes and government embargoes. The cause may be over-consumption, aging infrastructure, choke point disruption or bottlenecks at oil refineries
and port facilities that restrict fuel supply. An emergency may emerge
during very cold winters due to increased consumption of energy.
Large fluctuations and manipulations in future derivatives
can have a substantial impact on price. Large investment banks control
80% of oil derivatives as of May 2012, compared to 30% only a decade
ago. This increase contributed to an improvement of global energy output from 117 687 TWh in 2000 to 143 851TWh in 2008.
Limitations on free trade for derivatives could reverse this trend of
growth in energy production. Kuwaiti Oil Minister Hani Hussein stated
that "Under the supply and demand theory, oil prices today are not
justified," in an interview with Upstream.
Pipeline failures and other accidents may cause minor
interruptions to energy supplies. A crisis could possibly emerge after
infrastructure damage from severe weather. Attacks by terrorists or militia on important infrastructure are a possible problem for energy consumers, with a successful strike on a Middle East
facility potentially causing global shortages. Political events, for
example, when governments change due to regime change, monarchy
collapse, military occupation, and coup
may disrupt oil and gas production and create shortages. Fuel shortage
can also be due to the excess and useless use of the fuels.
Fuel protests in the United Kingdom in 2000 were caused by a rise in the price of crude oil combined with already relatively high taxation on road fuel in the UK.
2000s energy crisis - Since 2003, a rise in prices caused by continued global increases in petroleum demand coupled with production stagnation, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, and a myriad of other secondary causes.
2008 Central Asia energy crisis,
caused by abnormally cold temperatures and low water levels in an area
dependent on hydroelectric power. At the same time the South African
President was appeasing fears of a prolonged electricity crisis in South
Africa."Mbeki in pledge on energy crisis". Financial Times. Retrieved 2008-02-10.
In February 2008 the President of Pakistan announced plans to tackle energy shortages that were reaching crisis stage, despite having significant hydrocarbon reserves,. In April 2010, the Pakistani government announced the Pakistan national energy policy, which extended the official weekend and banned neon lights in response to a growing electricity shortage.
South African electrical crisis. The South African crisis led to large price rises for platinum in February 2008 and reduced gold production.
China
experienced severe energy shortages towards the end of 2005 and again
in early 2008. During the latter crisis they suffered severe damage to
power networks along with diesel and coal shortages. Supplies of electricity in Guangdong province, the manufacturing hub of China, are predicted to fall short by an estimated 10 GW. In 2011 China was forecast to have a second quarter electrical power deficit of 44.85 - 49.85 GW.
Nepal experienced severe energy crisis in 2015 when India
created an economic blockade to Nepal. Nepal faced the shortages of
various kinds of petroleum products and food materials which affected
severely on Nepal's economy.
“Peak oil” is the period when the maximum rate of global petroleumextraction
is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline.
It relates to a long-term decline in the available supply of petroleum.
This, combined with increasing demand, significantly increases the
worldwide prices of petroleum derived products. Most significant is the
availability and price of liquid fuel for transportation.
The US Department of Energy in the Hirsch report
indicates that “The problems associated with world oil production
peaking will not be temporary, and past 'energy crisis' experience will
provide relatively little guidance.”
Mitigation efforts
To avoid the serious social and economic
implications a global decline in oil production could entail, the 2005
Hirsch report emphasized the need to find alternatives, at least ten to
twenty years before the peak, and to phase out the use of petroleum over
that time. Such mitigation
could include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of
unconventional oil. Because mitigation can reduce the use of traditional
petroleum sources, it can also affect the timing of peak oil and the
shape of the Hubbert curve.
To
avoid a serious energy crisis in coming decades, citizens in the
industrial countries should actually be urging their governments to come
to international agreement on a persistent, orderly, predictable, and
steepening series of oil and natural gas price hikes over the next two
decades.
”
Due to a lack of political viability on the issue, government mandated fuel prices hikes are unlikely and the unresolved dilemma of fossil fuel dependence is becoming a wicked problem. A global soft energy path seems improbable, due to the rebound effect.
Conclusions that the world is heading towards an unprecedented large
and potentially devastating global energy crisis due to a decline in the
availability of cheap oil lead to calls for a decreasing dependency on fossil fuel.
Other ideas concentrate on design and development of improved, energy-efficient urban infrastructure in developing nations. Government funding for alternative energy is more likely to increase during an energy crisis, so too are incentives for oil exploration. For example, funding for research into inertial confinement fusion technology increased during the 1970s.
Kirk Sorensen and others have suggested that additional nuclear power plants, particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors have the energy density to mitigate global warming and replace the energy from peak oil, peak coal and peak gas.
The reactors produce electricity and heat so much of the
transportation infrastructure should move over to electric vehicles.
However, the high process heat of the molten salt reactors could be used to make liquid fuels from any carbon source.
2010s oil glut
Rather counterintuitively, the world economy has had to deal with the unforeseen consequences of the 2015-2016 oil glut also known as 2010s oil glut, a major energy crisis that took many experts by surprise. This oversupply crisis started with a considerable time-lag, more than six years after the beginning of the Great Recession: "the price of oil [had] stabilized
at a relatively high level (around $100 a barrel) unlike all previous
recessionary cycles since 1980 (start of First Persian Gulf War). But
nothing guarantee[d] such price levels in perpetuity".
Social and economic effects
The macroeconomic implications of a supply shock-induced
energy crisis are large, because energy is the resource used to exploit
all other resources. Oil price shocks can affect the rest of the
economy through delayed business investment, sectoral shifts in the labor market, or monetary policy responses. When energy markets fail, an energy shortage develops. Electricity consumers may experience intentionally engineered rolling blackouts during periods of insufficient supply or unexpected power outages, regardless of the cause.
Industrialized nations are dependent on oil, and efforts to
restrict the supply of oil would have an adverse effect on the economies
of oil producers. For the consumer, the price of natural gas, gasoline (petrol) and diesel
for cars and other vehicles rises. An early response from stakeholders
is the call for reports, investigations and commissions into the price
of fuels. There are also movements towards the development of more sustainable urban infrastructure.
In the market, new technology and energy efficiency measures become desirable for consumers seeking to decrease transport costs. January 30, 2008 Planet Ark. Examples include:
Tourism trends and gas-guzzler ownership varies with fuel costs. Energy shortages can influence public opinion on subjects from nuclear power plants to electric blankets. Building construction techniques—improved insulation, reflective roofs, thermally efficient windows, etc.—change to reduce heating costs.
Crisis management
An electricity shortage is felt most acutely in heating, cooking, and water supply. Therefore, a sustained energy crisis may become a humanitarian crisis.
If an energy shortage is prolonged a crisis management phase is enforced by authorities. Energy audits may be conducted to monitor usage. Various curfews with the intention of increasing energy conservation
may be initiated to reduce consumption. For example, to conserve power
during the Central Asia energy crisis, authorities in Tajikistan ordered
bars and cafes to operate by candlelight."Crisis Looms as Bitter Cold, Blackouts Hit Tajikistan". NPR. Retrieved 2008-02-10.
In the worst kind of energy crisis energy rationing and fuel rationing may be incurred. Panic buying
may beset outlets as awareness of shortages spread. Facilities close
down to save on heating oil; and factories cut production and lay off
workers. The risk of stagflation increases.
