The term aerology (from Greek ἀήρ, aēr, "air"; and -λογία, -logia) is sometimes used as an alternative term for the study of Earth's atmosphere; in other definitions, aerology is restricted to the free atmosphere, the region above the planetary boundary layer.
Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the
chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is
studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on
environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling,
oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines. Research is
increasingly connected with other areas of study such as climatology.
The composition and chemistry of the atmosphere is of importance
for several reasons, but primarily because of the interactions between
the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's
atmosphere has been changed by human activity and some of these changes
are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems
which have been addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain,
photochemical smog and global warming. Atmospheric chemistry seeks to
understand the causes of these problems, and by obtaining a theoretical
understanding of them, allow possible solutions to be tested and the
effects of changes in government policy evaluated.
Atmospheric dynamics
Atmospheric dynamics is the study of motion systems of meteorological
importance, integrating observations at multiple locations and times
and theories. Common topics studied include diverse phenomena such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, gravity waves, tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones, jet streams,
and global-scale circulations. The goal of dynamical studies is to
explain the observed circulations on the basis of fundamental principles
from physics. The objectives of such studies incorporate improving weather forecasting,
developing methods for predicting seasonal and interannual climate
fluctuations, and understanding the implications of human-induced
perturbations (e.g., increased carbon dioxide concentrations or
depletion of the ozone layer) on the global climate.
Atmospheric physics
Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the
atmosphere. Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth's atmosphere
and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations,
chemical models, radiation balancing, and energy transfer processes in
the atmosphere and underlying oceans. In order to model weather systems,
atmospheric physicists employ elements of scattering theory, wave propagation models, cloud physics, statistical mechanics and spatial statistics,
each of which incorporate high levels of mathematics and physics.
Atmospheric physics has close links to meteorology and climatology and
also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the
atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide, including
remote sensing instruments.
In contrast to meteorology, which studies short term weather
systems lasting up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency
and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather
events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average
weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists,
those who practice climatology, study both the nature of climates –
local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors
that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can
help predict future climate change.
All of the Solar System's planets have atmospheres. This is because
their gravity is strong enough to keep gaseous particles close to the
surface. Larger gas giants are massive enough to keep large amounts of
the light gases hydrogen and helium close by, while the smaller planets lose these gases into space.
The composition of the Earth's atmosphere is different from the other
planets because the various life processes that have transpired on the
planet have introduced free molecular oxygen. Much of Mercury's atmosphere has been blasted away by the solar wind. The only moon that has retained a dense atmosphere is Titan. There is a thin atmosphere on Triton, and a trace of an atmosphere on the Moon.
Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying degrees of
energy received from either the Sun or their interiors, leading to the
formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), an Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to possess such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.
Hot Jupiters have been shown to be losing their atmospheres into space due to stellar radiation, much like the tails of comets. These planets may have vast differences in temperature between their day and night sides which produce supersonic winds,
although the day and night sides of HD 189733b appear to have very
similar temperatures, indicating that planet's atmosphere effectively
redistributes the star's energy around the planet.
The interface between the Earth's surface and outer space. The Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) is shown. The layers of the atmosphere are drawn to scale, whereas objects within them, such as the International Space Station, are not.
Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above the Earth's surface. The Kármán line, an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above sea level,
is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties
and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty, which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space, anti-satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit.
Outer space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the hazards of vacuum and radiation. Microgravity also has a negative effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss.
In addition to these health and environmental issues, the economic cost
of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high.
Formation and state
This is an artist's concept of the metric expansion of space, where a volume of the Universe is represented at each time interval by the circular sections. At left is depicted the rapid inflation from the initial state, followed thereafter by steady expansion to the present day, shown at right.
According to the Big Bang theory, the very early Universe was an extremely hot and dense state about 13.8 billion years ago which rapidly expanded.
About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow
protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called recombination epoch.
When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing
photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space. Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space. As light has a finite velocity, this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe. This leaves open the question as to whether the Universe is finite or infinite.
The present day shape of the universe has been determined from measurements of the cosmic microwave background using satellites like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. These observations indicate that the spatial geometry of the observable universe is "flat",
meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as
they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe,
except for local gravity. The flat Universe, combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating expansion of the Universe, indicates that space has a non-zero vacuum energy, which is called dark energy.
Estimates put the average energy density of the present day
Universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including
dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter
(ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of
the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic
meters.
The density of the Universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from
relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in
structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and black holes—to conditions in vast voids that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter.
Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated
in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the
mass-energy in the Universe, dark energy's influence is 5 orders of magnitude smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.
Environment
Part of the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image showing a typical section of space containing galaxies interspersed by deep vacuum. Given the finite speed of light, this view covers the past 13 billion years of the history of outer space.
Outer space is the closest known approximation to a perfect vacuum. It has effectively no friction, allowing stars, planets, and moons to move freely along their ideal orbits, following the initial formation stage.The deep vacuum of intergalactic space is not devoid of matter, as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter. The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 1023 km, or 10 billion light years. In spite of this, extinction, which is the absorption and scattering of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic astronomy.
Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres
by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated
upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with
distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer
space. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about 0.032 Pa at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.
The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the kinetic
activity of the gas, as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space
has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas,
meaning that the gas and radiation are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos called the cosmic neutrino background.) The current black body temperature of the background radiation is about 3 K (−270 °C; −454 °F). The gas temperatures in outer space are always at least the temperature of the CMB but can be much higher. For example, the solar corona reaches temperatures over 1.2–2.6 million K.
Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about
every class of celestial object. Star formation in spiral galaxies can
generate small-scale dynamos, creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μG. The Davis–Greenstein effect causes elongated dust grains to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical polarization. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields exist in several nearby galaxies. Magneto-hydrodynamic processes in activeelliptical galaxies produce their characteristic jets and radio lobes. Non-thermal radio sources have been detected even among the most distant, high-z sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.
Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic subatomic particles known as cosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 106eV up to an extreme 1020 eV of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of electrons is only about 1% of that of protons. Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a health threat to space travelers. According to astronauts, like Don Pettit, space has a burned/metallic odor that clings to their suits and equipment, similar to the scent of an arc welding torch.
Effect on biology and human bodies
Because of the hazards of a vacuum, astronauts must wear a pressurized space suit while off-Earth and outside their spacecraft.
Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found
that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods.
Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of bacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment. The lithopanspermia
hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from
life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another
habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred
early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.
Even at relatively low altitudes in the Earth's atmosphere,
conditions are hostile to the human body. The altitude where atmospheric
pressure matches the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the human body is called the Armstrong line, named after American physician Harry G. Armstrong.
It is located at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi). At or above
the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More
specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids
in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires
a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule.
Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low pressure, such as during a rapid decompression, can cause pulmonary barotrauma—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest. Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture.
Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and
blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in
oxygen consumption that leads to hypoxia.
As a consequence of rapid decompression, oxygen dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure
gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose
consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kPa, and this condition is called ebullism.
The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow
circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent
rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood
vessels, so some blood remains liquid. Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a pressure suit.
The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment
designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as
low as 2 kPa.
Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5 mi) to provide enough oxygen
for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi)
pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.
Most space suits use around 30–39 kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as
on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent
ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still
cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed.
Humans evolved for life in Earth gravity,
and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious
effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts
experience space motion sickness. This can cause nausea and vomiting, vertigo, headaches, lethargy,
and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it
typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new
environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise. Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.
During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an acute health hazard.
Exposure to high-energy, ionizing cosmic rays can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the white blood cell count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes, nervous system, lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. On a round-trip Mars
mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an
astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high
energy nuclei.
The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the
shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further
diminished by water containers and other barriers.The impact of the
cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can
affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation
hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.
Regions
Space
is a partial vacuum: its different regions are defined by the various
atmospheres and "winds" that dominate within them, and extend to the
point at which those winds give way to those beyond. Geospace extends
from Earth's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth's magnetic field,
whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space. Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause, whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the interstellar medium. Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void.
Geospace is the region of outer space near Earth, including the upper atmosphere and magnetosphere. The Van Allen radiation belts lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the magnetopause, which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the ionosphere.
The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the
behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is
interlinked with heliophysics—the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.
The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind
pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically
10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the
magnetosphere to form a magnetotail that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.
For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from
the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.
Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the Earth's magnetic field.
These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered
by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper
atmosphere. Geomagnetic storms
can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the
ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can
permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave
radio communication and GPS location and timing. Magnetic storms can also be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They also create aurorae seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the geomagnetic poles.
Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric
density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is
still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites.
This region contains material left over from previous manned and
unmanned launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of
this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.
Cislunar space
Lunar Orbital Station, one of the proposed space stations for crewed cislunar travel in the 2030s
The region of space where Earth's gravity remains dominant against gravitational perturbations from the Sun is called the Hill sphere. This extends well out into translunar space to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun, or 1.5 million km (0.93 million mi).
Deep space has different definitions as to where it
starts. It has been defined by the United States government and others
as any region beyond cislunar space. The International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication (including satellites) defines the beginning of deep space at about 5 times that distance (2×106 km).
Interplanetary space
The sparse plasma (blue) and dust (white) in the tail of comet Hale–Bopp are being shaped by pressure from solar radiation and the solar wind, respectively
Interplanetary space is defined by the solar wind, a continuous
stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun that creates a very
tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 protons/cm3 and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph). Interplanetary space extends out to the heliopause where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun. The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind. The heliopause in turn deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, with this modulation effect peaking during solar maximum.
The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one astronomical unit
at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely
empty, and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include ionizedatomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also gas, plasma and dust, small meteors, and several dozen types of organicmolecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy. A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the zodiacal light.
Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun.
There are also magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter,
Saturn, Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These
are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of
a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the
planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and
other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van
Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars,
have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.
Interstellar space is the physical space within a galaxy beyond the influence each star has upon the encompassed plasma.
The contents of interstellar space are called the interstellar medium.
Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of
lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms.
This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a planetary nebula. The cataclysmic explosion of a supernova generates an expanding shock wave consisting of ejected materials that further enrich the medium. The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 106 particles per m3, but cold molecular clouds can hold 108–1012 per m3.
A number of molecules exist in interstellar space, as can tiny 0.1 μm dust particles. The tally of molecules discovered through radio astronomy is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds
allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic
polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions.
Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize
hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the trihydrogen cation. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant carbon monoxide to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.
The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 parsecs
(pc) of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for
its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with
a region of space known as the Local Bubble, which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the constellations of Ophiuchus and Taurus. (The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more.) This volume contains about 104–105 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the astrospheres
that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying
depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local
Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of
up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.
When stars are moving at sufficiently high peculiar velocities, their astrospheres can generate bow shocks as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) and NASA's Voyager probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a subsonic bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium. A bow shock is the third boundary of an astrosphere after the termination shock and the astropause (called the heliopause in the Solar System).
Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies
of the large scale distribution of galaxies show that the Universe has a
foam-like structure, with groups and clusters of galaxies
lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The
remainder forms huge voids that are mostly empty of galaxies.
Typically, a void spans a distance of (10–40) h−1 Mpc, where h is the Hubble constant in units of 100 km s−1 Mpc−1.
Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a rarefied plasma that is organized in a galactic filamentary structure.
This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM). The density of
the IGM is 5–200 times the average density of the Universe.
It consists mostly of ionized hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of
equal numbers of electrons and protons. As gas falls into the
intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 105 K to 107 K,
which is high enough so that collisions between atoms have enough
energy to cause the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei;
this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the
warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). (Although the plasma is very hot
by terrestrial standards, 105 K is often called "warm" in
astrophysics.) Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to
half of the atomic matter in the Universe might exist in this warm–hot,
rarefied state.
When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the
galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can
heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 108 K and above in the so-called intracluster medium (ICM).
Earth orbit
A spacecraft enters orbit when its centripetalacceleration due to gravity is less than or equal to the centrifugal acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a low Earth orbit, this velocity is about 7,800 m/s (28,100 km/h; 17,400 mph);
by contrast, the fastest manned airplane speed ever achieved (excluding
speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2,200 m/s (7,900 km/h;
4,900 mph) in 1967 by the North American X-15.
To achieve an orbit, a spacecraft must travel faster than a sub-orbital spaceflight. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 MJ/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. Spacecraft with a perigee below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere,
which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends
on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations
in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about 300 km
(190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once
a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it
vaporizes in the atmosphere. The escape velocity
required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and
move into interplanetary space is about 11,200 m/s (40,300 km/h;
25,100 mph).
There is no clear boundary between Earth's atmosphere
and space, as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the
altitude increases. There are several standard boundary designations,
namely:
The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line
at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the
boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at
an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi), as Theodore von Kármán calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself.
The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of 80 km (50 mi) as astronauts.
NASA's Space Shuttle used 400,000 feet (122 km, 76 mi) as its re-entry altitude (termed the Entry Interface), which roughly marks the boundary where atmospheric drag
becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from
steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control
surfaces.
In 2009, scientists reported detailed measurements with a
Supra-Thermal Ion Imager (an instrument that measures the direction and
speed of ions), which allowed them to establish a boundary at 118 km
(73 mi) above Earth. The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual
transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of
the Earth's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in
space, which can reach speeds well over 268 m/s (600 mph).
The Outer Space Treaty
provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the
legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its
definition of outer space the Moon and other celestial bodies.
The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to
explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty. It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly
in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America
and the United Kingdom. As of 2017, 105 state parties have either
ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the
treaty, without ratifying it.
Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United
Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the
international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and
preventing an arms race in space. Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and anti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US, USSR, China, and in 2019, India The 1979 Moon Treaty
turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits
around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has
not been ratified by any nation that currently practices manned
spaceflight.
In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá,
Colombia. With their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial
Countries", or "the Bogotá Declaration", they claimed control of the
segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each
country. These claims are not internationally accepted.
Discovery, exploration and applications
Discovery
In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum, a principle that became known as the horror vacui. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled.
In ancient China, the 2nd-century astronomer Zhang Heng
became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the
mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of
the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and
void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars
float in the empty space, moving or standing still".
The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he
demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a
vacuum. It would remain for his pupil Evangelista Torricelli to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury barometer and created a scientific sensation in Europe. The French mathematician Blaise Pascal reasoned that if the column of mercury was supported by air, then the column ought to be shorter at higher altitude where the air pressure is lower. In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the Puy de Dôme
mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by
three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by
carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually
expand, then contract upon descent.
The original Magdeburg hemispheres (lower left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right)
In 1650, German scientist Otto von Guericke constructed the first vacuum pump: a device that would further refute the principle of horror vacui. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon.
Back in the 15th century, German theologian Nicolaus Cusanus speculated that the Universe
lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the Universe,
while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds
within which it could be contained. These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno in the 16th century. He extended the Copernican heliocentriccosmology to the concept of an infinite Universe filled with a substance he called aether, which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies. English philosopher William Gilbert
arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to
us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void. This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.
The concept of a Universe filled with a luminiferous aether
retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century.
This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could
propagate. In 1887, the Michelson–Morley experiment tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the speed of light depending on the direction of the planet's motion. The null result indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or frame of reference.
The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite Universe was the Englishman Thomas Digges in 1576.
But the scale of the Universe remained unknown until the first
successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the
German astronomer Friedrich Bessel. He showed that the star system 61 Cygni had a parallax of just 0.31 arcseconds (compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 light years. In 1917, Heber Curtis noted that novae
in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic
novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away. The distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was determined in 1923 by American astronomer Edwin Hubble by measuring the brightness of cepheid variables in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by Henrietta Leavitt. This established that the Andromeda galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way.
The modern concept of outer space is based on the "Big Bang" cosmology, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître. This theory holds that the universe originated from a very dense form that has since undergone continuous expansion.
The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist Charles É. Guillaume
in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he
concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British
physicist Arthur Eddington made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist Erich Regener used the total measured energy of cosmic rays to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933. American physicists Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new Big Bang theory. The modern measurement of the cosmic microwave background is about 2.7K.
The term outward space was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady Emmeline Stuart-Wortley in her poem "The Maiden of Moscow". The expression outer space was used as an astronomical term by Alexander von Humboldt in 1845. It was later popularized in the writings of H. G. Wells in 1901. The shorter term space is older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in John Milton's Paradise Lost in 1667.
Exploration and application
The first image taken by a human of the whole Earth, probably photographed by William Anders of Apollo 8. South is up; South America is in the middle.
For most of human history, space was explored by observations made
from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with
the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that
humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In
1935, the U.S. Explorer II manned balloon flight reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi). This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German A-4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the unmanned satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by a Russian R-7 rocket, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi). This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when Yuri Gagarin was sent into orbit on Vostok 1. The first humans to escape low-Earth orbit were Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders in 1968 on board the U.S. Apollo 8, which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth.
The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet Luna 1, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. In 1961, Venera 1 became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of Venus, although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the 1962 fly-by of Venus by Mariner 2. The first fly-by of Mars was by Mariner 4
in 1964. Since that time, unmanned spacecraft have successfully
examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and
many minor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth. In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space.
The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope, allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed. Not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. The interplanetary zodiacal dust emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an infrared telescope out past the dust increases its effectiveness. Likewise, a site like the Daedalus crater on the far side of the Moon could shield a radio telescope from the radio frequency interference that hampers Earth-based observations.
Unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit are an essential technology of modern civilization. They allow direct monitoring of weather conditions, relay long-range communications like television, provide a means of precise navigation, and allow remote sensing
of the Earth. The latter role serves a wide variety of purposes,
including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water
outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and
trees, and surveillance of military activities.
The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment
for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean
surfaces. Like asteroid mining, space manufacturing would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return.
An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing
mass into Earth orbit: $8,000–$25,000 per kg, according to a 2006
estimate (allowing for inflation since then). The cost of access to space has declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the Falcon 9
have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With
these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains
prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing
this issue include, fully reusable launch systems, non-rocket spacelaunch, momentum exchange tethers, and space elevators.
Interstellar travel
for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The
distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological
developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys
lasting several decades. For example, the Daedalus Project study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by the fusion of deuterium and helium-3, would require 36 years to reach the "nearby" Alpha Centauri system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems include light sails, ramjets, and beam-powered propulsion. More advanced propulsion systems could use antimatter as a fuel, potentially reaching relativistic velocities.
