The Medieval Inquisition was a series of Inquisitions (Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Medieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow.
The Cathars were first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians around 1170 in Northern Italy. Before this point, individual heretics such as Peter of Bruis
had often challenged the Church. However, the Cathars were the first
mass organization in the second millennium that posed a serious threat
to the authority of the Church. This article covers only these early
inquisitions, not the Roman Inquisition of the 16th century onwards, or the somewhat different phenomenon of the Spanish Inquisition of the late 15th century, which was under the control of the Spanish monarchy using local clergy. The Portuguese Inquisition of the 16th century and various colonial branches followed the same pattern.
History
An
inquisition was a process that developed to investigate alleged
instances of crimes. Its use in ecclesiastical courts was not at first
directed to matters of heresy, but a broad assortment of offenses such
as clandestine marriage and bigamy.
French historian Jean-Baptiste Guiraud
(1866–1953) defined Medieval Inquisition as "... a system of repressive
means, some of temporal and some others of spiritual kind, concurrently
issued by ecclesiastical and civil authorities in order to protect
religious orthodoxy and social order, both threatened by theological and
social doctrines of heresy".
Bishop of Lincoln, Robert Grosseteste,
defined heresy as "an opinion chosen by human perception, created by
human reason, founded on the Scriptures, contrary to the teachings of
the Church, publicly avowed, and obstinately defended."
The fault was in the obstinate adherence rather than theological error,
which could be corrected; and by referencing scripture Grosseteste
excludes Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians from the definition of
heretic.
There were many different types of inquisitions depending on the
location and methods; historians have generally classified them into the
episcopal inquisition and the papal inquisition. All major medieval inquisitions were decentralized, and each tribunal worked independently. Authority rested with local officials based on guidelines from the Holy See, but there was no central top-down authority running the inquisitions, as would be the case in post-medieval inquisitions.
Early Medieval courts generally followed a process called accusatio,
largely based on Germanic practices. In this procedure, an individual
would make an accusation against someone to the court. However, if the
suspect was judged innocent, the accusers faced legal penalties for
bringing false charges. This provided a disincentive to make any
accusation unless the accusers were sure it would stand. Later, a
threshold requirement was the establishment of the accused's publica fama, i.e., the fact that the person was widely believed to be guilty of the offense charged.
By the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, there was a shift
away from the accusatorial model toward the legal procedure used in the
Roman Empire. Instead of an individual making accusations based on
first-hand knowledge, judges now took on the prosecutorial role based on
information collected. Under inquisitorial procedures, guilt or
innocence was proved by the inquiry (inquisitio) of the judge into the details of a case.
Episcopal inquisitions
The
common people tended to view heretics "...as an antisocial menace.
...Heresy involved not only religious division, but social upset and
political strife." In 1076 Pope Gregory VII
excommunicated the residents of Cambrai because a mob had seized and
burned a Cathar determined by the bishop to have been a heretic. A
similar occurrence happened in 1114 during the bishops absence in
Strassburg. In 1145 clergy at Leige managed to rescue victims from the
crowd.
The first medieval inquisition, the episcopal inquisition, was established in the year 1184 by a papal bull of Pope Lucius III entitled Ad abolendam, "For the purpose of doing away with." It was a response to the growing Catharist movement in southern France. It was called "episcopal" because it was administered by local bishops, which in Latin is episcopus, and obliged bishops to visit their diocese twice a year in search of heretics. The mechanism for dealing with heresy developed gradually.
Practices and procedures of episcopal inquisitions could vary
from one diocese to another, depending on the resources available to
individual bishops and their relative interest or disinterest. Convinced
that Church teaching contained revealed truth, the first recourse of
bishops was that of persuasio. Through discourse, debates, and
preaching, they sought to present a better explanation of Church
teaching. This approach often proved very successful.
Legatine inquisitions
The
spread of other movements from the 12th century can be seen at least in
part as a reaction to the increasing moral corruption of the clergy,
which included illegal marriages and the possession of extreme wealth.
In the Middle Ages, the Inquisition's main focus was to eradicate these
new sects. Thus, its range of action was predominantly in Italy and
France, where the Cathars and the Waldensians, the two main heretic movements of the period, were.
Bishops had always the authority to look into alleged heretical
activity, but as it wasn't always clear what constituted heresy they
conferred with their colleagues and sought advice from Rome. Legates
were sent out, at first as advisors, later taking a greater role in the
administration.
During the pontificate of Innocent III,
papal legates were sent out to stop the spread of the Cathar and
Waldensian heresies to Provence and up the Rhine into Germany. Procedures began to be formalized by time of Pope Gregory IX.
Cathars
The Cathars were a group of dissidents mostly in the South of France, in cities like Toulouse. The sect developed in the 12th century, apparently founded by soldiers from the Second Crusade, who, on their way back, were converted by a Bulgarian sect, the Bogomils.
The Cathars' main heresy was their belief in dualism:
the evil God created the materialistic world and the good God created
the spiritual world. Therefore, Cathars preached poverty, chastity,
modesty and all those values which in their view helped people to detach
themselves from materialism. The Cathars presented a problem to feudal
government by their attitude towards oaths, which they declared under no
circumstances allowable.
Therefore, considering the religious homogeneity of that age, heresy
was an attack against social and political order, besides orthodoxy.
The Albigensian Crusade
resulted in the defeat of the Cathars militarily. After this, the
Inquisition played an important role in finally destroying Catharism
during the 13th and much of the 14th centuries.
Punishments for Cathars varied greatly. Most frequently, they were made
to wear yellow crosses atop their garments as a sign of outward
penance. Others undertook obligatory pilgrimages, many for the purpose
of fighting against Muslims.
Another common punishment, including for returned pilgrims, was
visiting a local church naked once each month to be scourged. Cathars
who were slow to repent suffered imprisonment and, often, the loss of
property. Others who altogether refused to repent were burned.
Waldensians
The Waldensians were mostly in Germany and North Italy. The Waldensians
were a group of orthodox laymen concerned about the increasing wealth
of the Church. As time passed, however, they found their beliefs at odds
with Catholic teaching. In contrast with the Cathars and in line with the Church, they believed in only one God,
but they did not recognize a special class of priesthood, believing in
the priesthood of all believers. They also objected to the veneration of
saints and martyrs,
which were part of the Church's orthodoxy. They rejected the
sacramental authority of the Church and its clerics and encouraged apostolic poverty. These movements became particularly popular in Southern France as well as Northern Italy and parts of Holy Roman Empire.
Papal inquisition
One
reason for Pope Gregory IX's creation of the Inquisition was to bring
order and legality to the process of dealing with heresy, since there
had been tendencies by mobs of townspeople to burn alleged heretics
without much of a trial. According to historian Thomas Madden:
"The Inquisition was not born out of desire to crush diversity or
oppress people; it was rather an attempt to stop unjust executions.
...Heresy was a crime against the state. Roman law in the Code of
Justinian made heresy a capital offense" (emphasis in original). In the
early Middle Ages, people accused of heresy were judged by the local
lord, many of whom lacked theological training. Madden claims that "The
simple fact is that the medieval Inquisition saved uncounted
thousands of innocent (and even not-so-innocent) people who would
otherwise have been roasted by secular lords or mob rule" (emphasis in
original).
Madden argues that while medieval secular leaders were trying to
safeguard their kingdoms, the Church was trying to save souls. The
Inquisition provided a means for heretics to escape death and return to
the community.
The complaints of the two main preaching orders of the period, the Dominicans and the Franciscans,
against the moral corruption of the Church, to some extent echoed those
of the heretical movements, but they were doctrinally conventional, and
were enlisted by Pope Innocent III in the fight against heresy. In 1231 Pope Gregory IX appointed a number of Papal Inquisitors (Inquisitores haereticae pravitatis), mostly Dominicans and Franciscans, for the various regions of Europe. As mendicants,
they were accustomed to travel. Unlike the haphazard episcopal methods,
the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed
records. Some of the few documents from the Middle Ages involving
first-person speech by medieval peasants come from papal inquisition
records. This tribunal or court functioned in France, Italy and parts of
Germany and had virtually ceased operation by the early fourteenth
century.
Pope Gregory's original intent for the Inquisition was a court of
exception to inquire into and glean the beliefs of those differing from
Catholic teaching, and to instruct them in the orthodox doctrine. It
was hoped that heretics would see the falsity of their opinion and would
return to the Roman Catholic Church. If they persisted in their heresy,
however, Pope Gregory, finding it necessary to protect the Catholic
community from infection, would have suspects handed over to civil
authorities, since public heresy was a crime under civil law as well as
Church law. The secular authorities would apply their own brands of
punishment for civil disobedience which, at the time, included burning
at the stake.
Over centuries the tribunals took different forms, investigating and
stamping out various forms of heresy, including witchcraft.
Throughout the Inquisition's history, it was rivaled by local
ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions. No matter how determined, no
pope succeeded in establishing complete control over the prosecution of
heresy. Medieval kings, princes, bishops, and civil authorities all had a
role in prosecuting heresy. The practice reached its apex in the second
half of the 13th century. During this period, the tribunals were almost
entirely free from any authority, including that of the pope.
Therefore, it was almost impossible to eradicate abuse. For example, Robert le Bougre, the "Hammer of Heretics" (Malleus Haereticorum),
was a Dominican friar who became an inquisitor known for his cruelty
and violence. Another example was the case of the province of Venice,
which was handed to the Franciscan inquisitors, who quickly became
notorious for their frauds against the Church, by enriching themselves
with confiscated property from the heretics and by the selling of
absolutions. Because of their corruption, they were eventually forced by
the Pope to suspend their activities in 1302.
In southern Europe, Church-run courts existed in the kingdom of Aragon during the medieval period, but not elsewhere in the Iberian peninsula or some other kingdoms, including England. In Scandinavian kingdoms it had hardly any impact.
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, two other movements attracted the attention of the Inquisition, the Knights Templar and the Beguines.
It is not clear if the process against the Templars was initiated by
the Inquisition on the basis of suspected heresy or if the Inquisition
itself was exploited by the king of France, Philip the Fair, who owed them money and wanted the knights' wealth.
In England the Crown was also deeply in debt to the Templars and,
probably on that basis, the Templars were also persecuted in England,
their lands forfeited and taken by others, (the last private owner being
the favorite of Edward II, Hugh le Despenser). Many Templars in England
were killed; some fled to Scotland and other places.
The Beguines were mainly a women's movement, recognized by the Church since their foundation in the thirteenth century.
Marguerite Porete wrote a mystical book known as The Mirror of Simple Souls.
The book provoked some controversy, because of statements which some
took to mean that a soul can become one with God and that when in this
state it can ignore moral law, as it had no need for the Church and its
sacraments, or its code of virtues. The book's teachings were easily
misconstrued. Porete was eventually tried by the Dominican inquisitor of France and burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic in 1310. The Council of Vienne of 1311 proclaimed them heretics and the movement went into decline.
The medieval Inquisition paid little attention to sorcery until Pope John XXII was the victim of an assassination attempt via poisoning and sorcery.
In a letter written in 1320 to the Inquisitors of Carcassonne and
Toulouse, Cardinal William of Santa Sabina states that Pope John
declared witchcraft to be heresy, and thus it could be tried under the
Inquisition.
Joan of Arc
In the spring of 1429 during the Hundred Years' War, in obedience to what she said was the command of God, Joan of Arc inspired the Dauphin's armies in a series of stunning military victories which lifted the siege of Orleans
and destroyed a large percentage of the remaining English forces at the
battle of Patay. A series of military setbacks eventually led to her
capture in the Spring of 1430 by the Burgundians, who were allied with
the English. They delivered her to them for 10,000 livres. In December
of that same year she was transferred to Rouen, the military
headquarters and administrative capital in France of King Henry VI of
England, and placed on trial for heresy before a Church court headed by
Bishop Pierre Cauchon, a supporter of the English.
The trial was politically motivated. Cauchon, although a native of France, had served in the English government since 1418, and he was therefore hostile to a woman who had worked for the opposing side. The same was true of the other tribunal members.
Ascribing a diabolic origin to her victories would be an effective way
to ruin her reputation and bolster the morale of English troops. Thus
the decision to involve the Inquisition, which did not initiate the
trial and in fact showed a reluctance throughout its duration.
Seventy charges were brought against her, including accusations
of heresy and dressing as a male (i.e., wearing soldiers' clothing and
armor). Eyewitnesses later said that Joan had told them she was wearing
this clothing and keeping it "firmly laced and tied together" because
the tunic could be tied to the long boots to keep her guards from
pulling her clothing off during their occasional attempts to rape her.
Joan was first condemned to life imprisonment and the
deputy-inquisitor, Jean Le Maitre (whom the eyewitness said only
attended because of threats from the English), obtained from her
assurances of relinquishing her male clothes. However, after four days,
during which she was said to have been subjected to attempted rape by
English soldiers, she put her soldier's clothing back on because
(according to the eyewitnesses) she needed protection against rape. Cauchon declared her a relapsed heretic, and she was burned at the stake two days later on 30 May 1431.
In 1455, a petition by Joan of Arc's mother Isabelle led to a
re-trial designed to investigate the dubious circumstances which led to
Joan's execution. The Inquisitor-General of France was put in charge of the new trial, which opened in Notre Dame de Paris on 7 November 1455.
After analyzing all the proceedings, including Joan's answers to the
allegations and the testimony of 115 witnesses who were called to
testify during the appellate process, the inquisitor overturned her condemnation on 7 July 1456. Joan of Arc was eventually canonized in 1920.
Historian Edward Peters identifies a number of illegalities in Joan's first trial in which she had been convicted.
Inquisition procedure
The
papal inquisition developed a number of procedures to discover and
prosecute heretics. These codes and procedures detailed how an
inquisitorial court was to function. If the accused renounced their
heresy and returned to the Church, forgiveness was granted and a penance
was imposed. If the accused upheld their heresy, they were excommunicated
and turned over to secular authorities. The penalties for heresy,
though not as severe as the secular courts of Europe at the time, were
codified within the ecclesiastic courts as well (e.g. confiscation of
property, turning heretics over to the secular courts for punishment).
Additionally, the various "key terms" of the inquisitorial courts were
defined at this time, including, for example, "heretics," “believers,"
“those suspect of heresy," “those simply suspected," “those vehemently
suspected," and "those most vehemently suspected".
Investigation
The
townspeople would be gathered in a public place. The inquisitors would
provide an opportunity for anyone to step forward and denounce
themselves in exchange for leniency. Legally, there had to be at least
two witnesses, although conscientious judges rarely contented themselves
with that number.
Trial
At the
beginning of the trial, defendants were invited to name those who had
"mortal hatred" against them. If the accusers were among those named,
the defendant was set free and the charges dismissed; the accusers would
face life imprisonment. This option was meant to keep the inquisition
from becoming involved in local grudges. Early legal consultations on
conducting inquisition stress that it is better that the guilty go free
than that the innocent be punished. Gregory IX urged Conrad of Marburg: "ut puniatur sic temeritas perversorum quod innocentiae puritas non laedatur" – i.e., "not to punish the wicked so as to hurt the innocent".
There was no personal confrontation of witnesses, neither was
there any cross-examination. Witnesses for the defense hardly ever
appeared, as they would almost infallibly be suspected of being heretics
or favorable to heresy. At any stage of the trial the accused could
appeal to Rome.
Torture
Like the inquisitorial process itself, torture was an ancient Roman legal practice commonly used in secular courts.
On May 15, 1252, Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull entitled Ad extirpanda,
which authorized the limited use of torture by inquisitors. Much of the
brutality commonly associated with the Inquisition was actually
previously common in secular courts, but prohibited under the
Inquisition, including torture methods that resulted in bloodshed,
miscarriages, mutilation or death. Also, torture could be performed only
once, and for a limited duration.
In preparation for the Jubilee in 2000, the Vatican opened the
archives of the Holy Office (the modern successor to the Inquisition) to
a team of 30 scholars from around the world. According to the governor
general of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre,
recent studies "seem to indicate" that "torture and the death penalty
were not applied with the pitiless rigor" often ascribed to the
Inquisition. Other methods such as threats and imprisonment seem to have proven more effective.
Punishment
A council in Tours in 1164, presided over by Pope Alexander III,
ordered the confiscation of a heretic's goods. Of 5,400 people
interrogated in Toulouse between 1245–1246, 184 received penitential
yellow crosses (used to mark repentant Cathars), 23 were imprisoned for
life, and none were sent to the stake.
The most extreme penalty available in antiheretical proceedings
was reserved for relapsed or stubborn heretics. The unrepentant and
apostates could be "relaxed" to secular authority, however, opening the
convicted to the possibility of various corporal punishments, up to and
including being burned at the stake. Execution was neither performed by
the Church, nor was it a sentence available to the officials involved in
the inquisition, who, as clerics, were forbidden to kill. The accused
also faced the possibility that his or her property might be
confiscated. In some cases, accusers may have been motivated by a desire
to take the property of the accused, though this is a difficult
assertion to prove in the majority of areas where the inquisition was
active, as the inquisition had several layers of oversight built into
its framework in a specific attempt to limit prosecutorial misconduct.
The inquisitors generally preferred not to hand over heretics to
the secular arm for execution if they could persuade the heretic to
repent: Ecclesia non novit sanguinem (The Church knows not Blood). For example, of the 900 guilty verdicts levied against 636 individuals by the Dominican friar and inquisitor Bernard Gui, no more than 45 resulted in execution.
Legacy
By the 14th century the Waldensians had been driven underground. Some residents of the Pays Cathare
identify themselves as Cathars even today. They claim to be descended
from the Cathars of the Middle Ages. However, the delivering of the consolamentum, on which historical Catharism was based, required a linear succession by a bon homme in good standing. It is believed that one of the last known bons hommes, Guillaume Belibaste, was burned in 1321.
Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition,
is a term under which scholars have categorised a wide range of loosely
related ideas and movements which have developed within Western society. These ideas and currents are united by the fact that they are largely distinct both from orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and from Enlightenmentrationalism. Esotericism has pervaded various forms of Western philosophy, religion, pseudoscience, art, literature, and music, continuing to affect intellectual ideas and popular culture.
The idea of grouping a wide range of Western traditions and philosophies together under the category that is now termed esotericism
developed in Europe during the late seventeenth century. Various
academics have debated how to define Western esotericism, with a number
of different options proposed. One scholarly model adopts its definition
of "esotericism" from certain esotericist schools of thought
themselves, treating "esotericism" as a perennialist
hidden, inner tradition. A second perspective sees esotericism as a
category that encompasses movements which embrace an "enchanted"
world-view in the face of increasing disenchantment. A third views
Western esotericism as a category encompassing all of Western culture's
"rejected knowledge" that is accepted neither by the scientific
establishment nor by orthodox religious authorities.
The earliest traditions which later analysis would label as forms of Western esotericism emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, where Hermeticism, Gnosticism, and Neoplatonism developed as schools of thought distinct from what became mainstream Christianity. Renaissance Europe saw increasing interest in many of these older ideas, with various intellectuals combining "pagan" philosophies with the Kabbalah and Christian philosophy, resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like Christian theosophy. The seventeenth century saw the development of initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, while the Age of Enlightenment
of the eighteenth century led to the development of new forms of
esoteric thought. The nineteenth century saw the emergence of new trends
of esoteric thought that have come to be known as occultism. Prominent groups in this century included the Theosophical Society and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Modern Paganism developed within occultism, and includes religious movements such as Wicca. Esoteric ideas permeated the counterculture of the 1960s and later cultural tendencies, from which emerged the New Age phenomenon in the 1970s.
Although the idea that these varying movements could be
categorised together under the rubric of "Western esotericism" developed
in the late eighteenth century, these esoteric currents were largely
ignored as a subject of academic enquiry. The academic study of Western esotericism only emerged in the late twentieth-century, pioneered by scholars like Frances Yates and Antoine Faivre.
Esoteric ideas have meanwhile also exerted an influence in popular culture, appearing in art, literature, film, and music.
Etymology
The concept of the "esoteric" originated in the 2nd century
with the coining of the Ancient Greekadjectiveesôterikós ("belonging to an inner circle"); the earliest known example of the word appeared in a satire authored by Lucian of Samosata (c. 125 – after 180).
The noun "esotericism", in its French form "ésotérisme", first appeared in 1828 in the work by Jacques Matter [fr] (1791–1864), Histoire critique du gnosticisme (3 vols.).
The term "esotericism" thus came into use in the wake of the Age of Enlightenment and of its critique of institutionalised religion, during which time alternative religious groups began to disassociate themselves from the dominant Christianity in Western Europe. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the term "esotericism" came to commonly be seen
as something which was distinct from Christianity, and which had formed
a subculture that had been at odds with the Christian mainstream from
at least the time of the Renaissance. The French occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875) popularized the term in the 1850s, and Theosophist Alfred Percy Sinnett (1840–1921) introduced it into the English language in his book Esoteric Buddhism (1883). Lévi also introduced the term l'occultisme, a notion that he developed against the background of contemporary socialist and Catholic discourses. "Esotericism" and "occultism" were often employed as synonyms until later scholars distinguished the concepts.
Conceptual development
'Western esotericism'
is not a natural term but an artificial category, applied
retrospectively to a range of currents and ideas that were known by
other names at least prior to the end of the eighteenth century. [This]
means that, originally, not all those currents and ideas were
necessarily seen as belonging together:... it is only as recently as the
later seventeenth century that we find the first attempts at presenting
them as one single, coherent field or domain, and at explaining what
they have in common. In short, 'Western esotericism' is a modern
scholarly construct, not an autonomous tradition that already existed
out there and merely needed to be discovered by historians.
— The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff, 2013.
The concept of "Western esotericism" represents a modern scholarly
construct rather than a pre-existing, self-defined tradition of thought.
In the late seventeenth century, several European Christian thinkers
presented the argument that one could categorise certain traditions of
Western philosophy and thought together, thus establishing the category
now labelled "Western esotericism". The first to do so, Ehregott Daniel Colberg [de] (1659–1698), a German Lutheran theologian, wrote Platonisch-Hermetisches Christianity (1690–91). A hostile critic of various currents of Western thought that had emerged since the Renaissance—among them Paracelsianism, Weigelianism, and Christian theosophy—in his book he labelled all of these traditions under the category of "Platonic–Hermetic Christianity", portraying them as heretical to what he saw as "true" Christianity.
Despite his hostile attitude toward these traditions of thought,
Colberg became the first to connect these disparate philosophies and to
study them under one rubric, also recognising that these ideas linked
back to earlier philosophies from late antiquity.
In Europe during the eighteenth century, amid the Age of Enlightenment, these esoteric traditions came to be regularly categorised under the labels of "superstition", "magic", and "the occult" - terms often used interchangeably. The modern academy,
then in the process of developing, consistently rejected and ignored
topics coming under "the occult", thus leaving research into them
largely to enthusiasts outside of academia. Indeed, according to historian of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff
(born 1961), rejection of "occult" topics was seen as a "crucial
identity marker" for any intellectuals seeking to affiliate themselves
with the academy.
Scholars established this category in the late 18th century after
identifying "structural similarities" between "the ideas and world
views of a wide variety of thinkers and movements" which prior to this
had not been placed in the same analytical grouping.
According to the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff, the term
provided a "useful generic label" for "a large and complicated group of
historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an air de famille."
Various academics have emphasised the idea that esotericism is a phenomenon unique to the Western world; as Faivre stated, an "empirical perspective" would hold that "esotericism is a Western notion".
As scholars such as Faivre and Hanegraaff have pointed out, there is no
comparable category of "Eastern" or "Oriental" esotericism. The emphasis on Western esotericism was nevertheless primarily devised to distinguish the field from a universal esotericism.
Hanegraaff has characterised these as "recognisable world views and
approaches to knowledge that have played an important although always
controversial role in the history of Western culture".
Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan asserted that Western esotericism
constituted "a third pillar of Western culture" alongside "doctrinal
faith and rationality", being deemed heretical by the former and
irrational by the latter.
Scholars nevertheless recognise that various non-Western traditions
have exerted "a profound influence" over Western esotericism, citing the
prominent example of the Theosophical Society's incorporation of Hindu and Buddhist concepts like reincarnation into its doctrines.
Given these influences and the imprecise nature of the term "Western",
the scholar of esotericism Kennet Granholm has argued that academics
should cease referring to "Western esotericism" altogether, instead simply favouring "esotericism" as a descriptor of this phenomenon. Egil Asprem has endorsed this approach.
Definition
The historian of esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that "never a precise term, [esotericism] has begun to overflow its boundaries on all sides",
with both Faivre and Karen-Claire Voss stating that Western esotericism
consists of "a vast spectrum of authors, trends, works of philosophy,
religion, art, literature, and music".
There is broad agreement among scholars as to which currents of thought
can be placed within a category of "esotericism", ranging from ancient Gnosticism and Hermetism through to Rosicrucianism and the Kabbalah and on to more recent phenomenon such as the New Age movement.
Nevertheless, "esotericism" itself remains a controversial term, with
scholars specialising in the subject disagreeing as to how it can best
be defined.
Esotericism as a universal, secret, inner tradition
A definition adopted by some scholars has used "Western esotericism"
in reference to "inner traditions" which are concerned with a "universal
spiritual dimension of reality, as opposed to the merely external
('exoteric') religious institutions and dogmatic systems of established
religions."
According to this approach, "Western esotericism" is viewed as just one
variant of a worldwide "esotericism" which can be found at the heart of
all world religions and cultures, reflecting a hidden esoteric reality.
This usage of the term "esotericism" is closest to the original meaning
of the word as it was used in late antiquity, where it was applied to
secret spiritual teachings which were reserved for a specific elite and
hidden from the masses. This definition was popularised in the published work of nineteenth-century esotericists like A.E. Waite, who sought to combine their own mystical beliefs with a historical interpretation of esotericism. It subsequently became a popular approach within several esoteric movements, most notably Martinism and Traditionalism.
This definition, originally developed by esotericists themselves,
became popular among French academics during the 1980s, exerting a
strong influence over the scholars Mircea Eliade, Henry Corbin, and the early work of Faivre. Within the academic field of religious studies, those who study different religions in search of an inner universal dimension to them all are termed "religionists". Such religionist ideas also exerted an influence on more recent scholars like Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke and Arthur Versluis.
Versluis for instance defined "Western esotericism" as "inner or hidden
spiritual knowledge transmitted through Western European historical
currents that in turn feed into North American and other non-European
settings". He added that these Western esoteric currents all shared a core characteristic, "a claim to gnosis, or direct spiritual insight into cosmology or spiritual insight", and accordingly he suggested that these currents could be referred to as "Western gnostic" just as much as "Western esoteric".
There are various problems with this model for understanding Western esotericism.
The most significant is that it rests upon the conviction that there
really is a "universal, hidden, esoteric dimension of reality" that
objectively exists.
The existence of this universal inner tradition has not been discovered
through scientific or scholarly enquiry; this had led some
to claim that it does not exist, although Hanegraaff thought it better
to adopt a view based in methodological agnosticism by stating that "we
simply do not know - and cannot know" if it exists or not. He noted
that, even if such a true and absolute nature of reality really existed,
it would only be accessible through "esoteric" spiritual practices, and
could not be discovered or measured by the "exoteric" tools of
scientific and scholarly enquiry.
Hanegraaff also highlighted that an attitude which seeks to uncover an
inner hidden core of all esoteric currents masks the fact that such
groups often contain significant differences from one another, being
rooted in their own historical and social contexts, and expressing ideas
and agendas which are mutually exclusive.
A third issue was that many of those currents widely recognised as
esoteric never concealed their teachings, and in the twentieth century
came to permeate popular culture, thus problematizing the claim that
esotericism could be defined by its hidden and secretive nature.
Moreover, Hanegraaff noted that when scholars adopt this definition, it
shows that they subscribe to the religious doctrines which are espoused
by the very groups that they are studying.
Esotericism as an enchanted world view
The Magician, a tarot
card displaying the Hermetic concept of "as above, so below." Faivre
connected this concept to 'correspondences', his first defining
characteristic of esotericism
Another approach to Western esotericism has treated it as a world
view that embraces "enchantment" in contrast to world views influenced
by post-Cartesian, post-Newtonian, and positivist science which have sought to "dis-enchant" the world. Esotericism is therefore understood as comprising those world views which eschew a belief in instrumental causality and instead adopt a belief that all parts of the universe are interrelated without a need for causal chains. It therefore stands as a radical alternative to the disenchanted world views which have dominated Western culture since the scientific revolution, and must therefore always be at odds with secular culture.
An early exponent of this definition was the historian of Renaissance thought Frances Yates
in her discussions of a "Hermetic Tradition", which she saw as an
"enchanted" alternative to established religion and rationalistic
science.
However, the primary exponent of this view was Faivre, who published a
series of criteria for how to define "Western esotericism" in 1992.
Faivre claimed that esotericism was "identifiable by the presence of
six fundamental characteristics or components", four of which were
"intrinsic" and thus vital to defining something as being esoteric,
while the other two were "secondary" and thus not necessarily present in
every form of esotericism. He listed these characteristics as follows:
"Correspondences": This is the idea that there are both real and
symbolic correspondences existing between all things within the
universe. As examples for this, Faivre pointed to the esoteric concept of the macrocosm and microcosm,
often presented as the dictum of "as above, so below", as well as the
astrological idea that the actions of the planets have a direct
corresponding influence on the behaviour of human beings.
"Living Nature": Faivre argued that all esotericists envision the
natural universe as being imbued with its own life force, and that as
such they understand it as being "complex, plural, hierarchical".
"Imagination and Mediations": Faivre believed that all esotericists place great emphasis on both the human imagination,
and mediations – "such as rituals, symbolic images, mandalas,
intermediary spirits" – and mantras as tools that provide access to
worlds and levels of reality existing between the material world and the
divine.
"Experience of Transmutation": Faivre's fourth intrinsic
characteristic of esotericism was the emphasis that esotericists place
on fundamentally transforming themselves through their practice, for
instance through the spiritual transformation that is alleged to
accompany the attainment of gnosis.
"Practice of Concordance": The first of Faivre's secondary
characteristics of esotericism was the belief – held by many
esotericists, such as those in the Traditionalist School
– that there is a fundamental unifying principle or root from which all
world religions and spiritual practices emerge. The common esoteric
principle is that by attaining this unifying principle, the world's
different beliefs can be brought together in unity.
"Transmission": Faivre's second secondary characteristic was the
emphasis on the transmission of esoteric teachings and secrets from a
master to their disciple, through a process of initiation.
Faivre's form of categorisation has been endorsed by scholars like Goodrick-Clarke, and by 2007 Bogdan could note that Faivre's had become "the standard definition" of Western esotericism in use among scholars.
However, in 2013 the scholar Kennet Granholm stated only that Faivre's
definition had been "the dominating paradigm for a long while" and that
it "still exerts influence among scholars outside the study of Western
esotericism".
The advantage of Faivre's system is that it allows varying esoteric
traditions to be compared "with one another in a systematic fashion". However, criticisms have also been expressed of Faivre's theory, pointing out its various weaknesses.
Hanegraaff claimed that Faivre's approach entailed "reasoning by
prototype" in that it relied upon already having a "best example" of
what Western esotericism should look like, against which other phenomena
then had to be compared. The scholar of esotericism Kocku von Stuckrad
(born 1966) noted that Faivre's taxonomy was based on his own areas of
specialism – Renaissance Hermeticism, Christian Kabbalah, and Protestant
Theosophy – and that it was thus not based on a wider understanding of
esotericism as it has existed throughout history, from the ancient world
to the contemporary period. Accordingly, Von Stuckrad suggested that it was a good typology for understanding "Christian esotericism in the early modern period" but lacked utility beyond that.
Esotericism as claims to higher knowledge
Somewhat crudely,
esotericism can be described as a Western form of spirituality that
stresses the importance of the individual effort to gain spiritual
knowledge, or gnosis, whereby man is confronted with the divine aspect of existence.
— Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan, 2007.
As an alternative to Faivre's framework, Kocku von Stuckrad
developed his own variant, although argued that this did not represent a
"definition" but rather "a framework of analysis" for scholarly usage.
He stated that "on the most general level of analysis", esotericism
represented "the claim of higher knowledge", a claim to possessing
"wisdom that is superior to other interpretations of cosmos and history"
and which serves as a "master key for answering all questions of
humankind".
Accordingly, he believed that esoteric groups placed a great emphasis
on secrecy, not because they were inherently rooted in elite groups but
because the idea of concealed secrets that can be revealed was central
to their discourse.
Examining the means of accessing higher knowledge, he highlighted two
themes that he believed could be found within esotericism, that of
mediation through contact with non-human entities, and individual
experience.
Accordingly, for Von Stuckrad, esotericism could be best understood as
"a structural element of Western culture" rather than as a selection of
different schools of thought.
Western esotericism as "rejected knowledge"
An
additional definition was proposed by Hanegraaff, and holds that
"Western esotericism" is a category representing "the academy's dustbin
of rejected knowledge."
In this respect, it contains all of the theories and world views that
have been rejected by the mainstream intellectual community because they
do not accord with "normative conceptions of religion, rationality and
science". His approach is rooted within the field of the history of ideas, and stresses the role of change and transformation over time.
Goodrick-Clarke was critical of this approach, believing that it
relegated Western esotericism to the position of "a casualty of
positivist and materialist perspectives in the nineteenth-century" and
thus reinforces the idea that Western esoteric traditions were of little
historical importance.
Bogdan similarly expressed concern regarding Hanegraaff's definition,
believing that it made the category of Western esotericism "all
inclusive" and thus analytically useless.
History
Late Antiquity
A later illustration of Hermes Trismegistus
The origins of Western esotericism are in the Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean, then part of the Roman Empire, during Late Antiquity, a period encompassing the first centuries of the Common Era.
This was a milieu in which there was a mix of religious and
intellectual traditions from Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Babylon, and
Persia, and in which globalisation, urbanisation, and multiculturalism were bringing about socio-cultural change.
One component of this was Hermetism, an Egyptian Hellenistic school of thought that takes its name from the legendary Egyptian wise man, Hermes Trismegistus. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, a number of texts appeared which were attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, including the Corpus Hermeticum, Asclepius, and The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth.
Although it is still debated as to whether Hermetism was a purely
literary phenomenon, or whether there were communities of practitioners
who acted on these ideas, it has been established that these texts
discuss the true nature of God, emphasising that humans must transcend rational thought and worldly desires in order to find salvation and be reborn into a spiritual body of immaterial light, thereby achieving spiritual unity with divinity.
Another tradition of esoteric thought in Late Antiquity was Gnosticism, which had a complex relationship with Christianity.
Various Gnostic sects existed, and they broadly believed that the
divine light had been imprisoned within the material world by a
malevolent entity known as the Demiurge, who was served by demonic helpers, the Archons. It was the Gnostic belief that humans, who were imbued with the divine light, should seek to attain gnosis and thus escape from the world of matter and rejoin the divine source.
A third form of esotericism in Late Antiquity was Neoplatonism, a school of thought influenced by the ideas of the philosopher Plato. Advocated by such figures as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus,
Neoplatonism held that the human soul had fallen from its divine
origins into the material world, but that it could progress, through a
number of hierarchical spheres of being, to return to its divine origins
once more. The later Neoplatonists performed theurgy, a ritual practice attested in such sources as the Chaldean Oracles.
Scholars are still unsure of precisely what theurgy involved, although
it is known that it involved a practice designed to make gods appear,
who could then raise the theurgist's mind to the reality of the divine.
Middle Ages
After the fall of Rome, alchemy and philosophy
and other aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab
and Near Eastern world and reintroduced into Western Europe by Jews and by the cultural contact between Christians and Muslims in Sicily and southern Italy. The 12th century saw the development of the Kabbalah in southern Italy and medieval Spain.
The medieval period also saw the publication of grimoires, which offered often elaborate formulas for theurgy and thaumaturgy.
Many of the grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures in
alchemy from this period seem to also have authored or used grimoires.
Renaissance and Early Modern period
During the Renaissance, a number of European thinkers began to synthesize "pagan"
(that is, not Christian) philosophies, which were then being made
available through Arabic translations, with Christian thought and the
Jewish kabbalah. The earliest of these individuals was the Byzantine philosopher Plethon (1355/60–1452?), who argued that the Chaldean Oracles represented an example of a superior religion of ancient humanity which had been passed down by the Platonists.
Plethon's ideas interested the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de Medici, who employed Florentine thinker Marsilio Ficino
(1433–1499) to translate Plato's works into Latin. Ficino went on to
translate and publish the works of various Platonic figures, arguing
that their philosophies were compatible with Christianity, and allowing
for the emergence of a wider movement in Renaissance Platonism, or
Platonic Orientalism. Ficino also translated part of the Corpus Hermeticum, although the rest would be translated by his contemporary, Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500).
Another core figure in this intellectual milieu was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
(1463–1494), who achieved notability in 1486 by inviting scholars from
across Europe to come and debate with him 900 theses that he had
written. Pico della Mirandola argued that all of these philosophies
reflected a grand universal wisdom. However, Pope Innocent VIII condemned these ideas, criticising him for attempting to mix pagan and Jewish ideas with Christianity.
Pico della Mirandola's increased interest in Jewish kabbalah led to his development of a distinct form of Christian Kabbalah. His work was built on by the German Johannes Reuchlin (1455–1522) who authored a prominent text on the subject, De Arte Cabbalistica. Christian Kabbalah was expanded in the work of the German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535/36), who used it as a framework through which to explore the philosophical and scientific traditions of Antiquity in his work De occulta philosophia libri tres.
The work of Agrippa and other esoteric philosophers had been based in a
pre-Copernican worldview, but following the arguments of Copernicus,
a more accurate understanding of the cosmos was established.
Copernicus' theories were adopted into esoteric strains of thought by Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), whose ideas would be deemed heresy by the Roman Catholic Church, eventually resulting in his public execution.
A distinct strain of esoteric thought developed in Germany, where it came to be known as Naturphilosophie; although influenced by traditions from Late Antiquity and Medieval Kabbalah, it only acknowledged two main sources of authority: Biblical scripture and the natural world. The primary exponent of this approach was Paracelsus (1493/94–1541), who took inspiration from alchemy and folk magic
to argue against the mainstream medical establishment of his time
which, as in Antiquity, still based its approach on the ideas of the
second-century physician and philosopher, Galen,
a Greek in the Roman Empire. Instead, Paracelsus urged doctors to learn
medicine through an observation of the natural world, although in later
work he also began to focus on overtly religious questions. His work
would gain significant support in both areas over the following
centuries.
One of those influenced by Paracelsus was the German cobbler Jacob Böhme (1575–1624), who sparked the Christian theosophy movement through his attempts to solve the problem of evil. Böhme argued that God had been created out of an unfathomable mystery, the Ungrund, and that God himself was composed of a wrathful core, surrounded by the forces of light and love. Although condemned by Germany's Lutheran authorities, Böhme's ideas spread and formed the basis for a number of small religious communities, such as Johann Georg Gichtel's Angelic Brethren in Amsterdam, and John Pordage and Jane Leade's Philadelphian Society in England.
From 1614 to 1616, the three Rosicrucian Manifestos
were published in Germany; these texts purported to represent a secret,
initiatory brotherhood which had been founded centuries before by a
German adept named Christian Rosenkreutz. There is no evidence that Rosenkreutz was a genuine historical figure, nor that a Rosicrucian Order had ever existed up to that point. Instead, the manifestos are likely literary creations of Lutheran theologian Johann Valentin Andreae
(1586–1654). However, they inspired much public interest, with various
individuals coming to describe themselves as "Rosicrucian" and claiming
that they had access to secret, esoteric knowledge as a result.
A real initiatory brotherhood was established in late
16th-century Scotland through the transformation of Medieval stonemason
guilds to include non-craftsman: Freemasonry.
Soon spreading into other parts of Europe, in England it largely
rejected its esoteric character and embraced humanism and rationalism,
while in France it embraced new esoteric concepts, particularly those
from Christian theosophy.
18th, 19th and early 20th centuries
Hypnotic séance. Painting by Swedish artist Richard Bergh, 1887
The Age of Enlightenment
witnessed a process of increasing secularisation of European
governments and an embrace of modern science and rationality within
intellectual circles. In turn, a "modernist occult" emerged that
reflected varied ways in which esoteric thinkers came to terms with
these developments. One of the most prominent esotericists of this period was the Swedish naturalist Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who attempted to reconcile science and religion after experiencing a vision of Jesus Christ.
His writings focused on his visionary travels to heaven and hell and
his communications with angels, claiming that the visible, materialist
world parallels an invisible spiritual world, with correspondences
between the two that do not reflect causal relations. Following his
death, followers would found the Swedenborgian New Church, although his writings would influence a far wider array of esoteric philosophies. Another major figure within the esoteric movement of this period was the German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1814), who developed the theory of Animal Magnetism,
which later came to be known more commonly as "Mesmerism". Mesmer
claimed that a universal life force permeated everything, including the
human body, and that illnesses were caused by a disturbance or block in
this force's flow; he developed techniques which he claimed cleansed
such blockages and restored the patient to full health. One of Mesmer's followers, the Marquis de Puységur, discovered that mesmeric treatment could induce a state of somnumbulic trance in which they claimed to enter visionary states and communicate with spirit beings.
These somnambulic trance-states would heavily influence the esoteric religion of Spiritualism,
which emerged in the United States in the 1840s and spread throughout
North America and Europe. Spiritualism was based on the concept that
individuals could communicate with spirits of the deceased during séances.
Although most forms of Spiritualism had little theoretical depth, being
largely practical affairs, full theological worldviews based on the
movement would be articulated by Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910) and Allan Kardec (1804–1869). Scientific interest in the claims of Spiritualism resulted in the development of the field of psychical research. Somnambulism also exerted a strong influence on the early disciplines of psychology and psychiatry; esoteric ideas pervade the work of many early figures in this field, most notably Carl Gustav Jung, although with the rise of psychoanalysis and behaviourism in the 20th century, these disciplines distanced themselves from esotericism. Also influenced by artificial somnambulism was the religion of New Thought, founded by the American Mesmerist Phineas P. Quimby (1802–1866) and which revolved around the concept of "mind over matter", believing that illness and other negative conditions could be cured through the power of belief.
Pentagram of Eliphas Levi
In Europe, a movement usually termed "occultism"
emerged as various figures attempted to find a "third way" between
Christianity and positivist science while building on the ancient,
medieval, and Renaissance traditions of esoteric thought. In France, following the social upheaval of the 1789 Revolution,
various figures emerged in this occultist milieu who were heavily
influenced by traditional Catholicism, the most notable of whom were Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875) and Papus (1865–1916). Also significant was René Guénon (1886–1951), whose concern with tradition led him to develop an occult viewpoint termed Traditionalism; it espoused the idea of an original, universal tradition, and thus a rejection of modernity. His Traditionalist ideas would have a strong influence on later esotericists like Julius Evola (1898–1974) and Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998).
In the Anglophone world, the burgeoning occult movement owed more to Enlightenment libertines,
and thus was more often of an anti-Christian bent that saw wisdom as
emanating from the pre-Christian pagan religions of Europe.
Various Spiritualist mediums came to be disillusioned with the esoteric
thought available, and sought inspiration in pre-Swedenborgian
currents; the most prominent of these were Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–1899) and Helena Blavatsky
(1831–1891), the latter of whom called for the revival of the "occult
science" of the ancients, which could be found in both the East and
West. Authoring the influential Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888), she co-founded the Theosophical Society in 1875. Subsequent leaders of the Society, namely Annie Besant (1847–1933) and Charles Webster Leadbeater
(1854–1934) interpreted modern theosophy as a form of ecumenical
esoteric Christianity, resulting in their proclamation of Indian Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) as world messiah. In rejection of this was the breakaway Anthroposophical Society founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925).
New esoteric understandings of magic also developed in the latter
part of the 19th century. One of the pioneers of this was American Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825–1875), who argued that sexual energy and psychoactive drugs could be used for magical purposes. In England, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn,
an initiatory order devoted to magic which based itself on an
understanding of kabbalah, was founded in the latter years of the
century. One of the most prominent members of that order was Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), who went on to proclaim the religion of Thelema and become a prominent member of the Ordo Templi Orientis.
Some of their contemporaries developed esoteric schools of thought that
did not entail magic, namely the Greco-Armenian teacher George Gurdjieff (1866–1949) and his Russian pupil P.D. Ouspensky (1878–1947).
Emergent occult and esoteric systems found increasing popularity
in the early 20th century, especially in Western Europe. Occult lodges
and secret societies flowered among European intellectuals of this era
who had largely abandoned traditional forms of Christianity. The
spreading of secret teachings and magic practices found enthusiastic adherents in the chaos of Germany during the interwar years. Notable writers such as Guido von List spread neo-pagan, nationalist ideas, based on Wotanism and the Kabbalah. Many influential and wealthy Germans were drawn to secret societies such as the Thule Society. Thule Society activist Karl Harrer was one of the founders of the German Workers' Party, which later became the Nazi Party; some Nazi Party members like Alfred Rosenberg and Rudolf Hess were listed as "guests" of the Thule Society, as was Adolf Hitler's mentor Dietrich Eckart. After their rise to power, the Nazis persecuted occultists. While many Nazi Party leaders like Hitler and Joseph Goebbels were hostile to occultism, Heinrich Himmler used Karl Maria Wiligut
as a clairvoyant "and was regularly consulting for help in setting up
the symbolic and ceremonial aspects of the SS" but not for important
political decisions. By 1939, Wiligut was "forcibly retired from the SS"
due to being institutionalised for insanity. On the other hand, the German hermetic magic order Fraternitas Saturni was founded on Easter 1928 and it is one of the oldest continuously running magical groups in Germany. In 1936, the Fraternitas Saturni was prohibited by the Nazi regime. The leaders of the lodge emigrated in order to avoid imprisonment, but in the course of the war Eugen Grosche, one of their main leaders, was arrested for a year by the Nazi government. After World War II they reformed the Fraternitas Saturni.
Several religious scholars such as Hugh Urban and Donald Westbrook have classified Scientology as being a modern form of Western Esotericism.
In the 1960s and 1970s, esotericism came to be increasingly associated with the growing counter-culture in the West, whose adherents understood themselves in participating in a spiritual revolution that would mark the Age of Aquarius. By the 1980s, these currents of millenarian currents had come to be widely known as the New Age movement, and it became increasingly commercialised as business entrepreneurs exploited a growth in the spiritual market.
Conversely, other forms of esoteric thought retained the
anti-commercial and counter-cultural sentiment of the 1960s and 1970s,
namely the techno-shamanic movement promoted by figures such as Terence McKenna and Daniel Pinchbeck which built on the work of anthropologist Carlos Castaneda.
This trend was accompanied by the increased growth of modern Paganism, a movement initially dominated by Wicca, the religion propagated by Gerald Gardner. Wicca was adopted by members of the second-wave feminist movement, most notably Starhawk, and developing into the Goddess movement. Wicca also greatly influenced the development of Pagan neo-druidry and other forms of Celtic revivalism. In response to Wicca there has also appeared literature and groups who label themselves followers of traditional witchcraft in opposition to the growing visibility of Wicca and these claim older roots than the system proposed by Gerald Gardner. Other trends which emerged in western occultism in the later 20th century were satanism as exposed by groups such as the Church of Satan and Temple of Set, as well as chaos magick through the Illuminates of Thanateros group.
Additionally, since the start of the 1990’s, countries inside of the former Iron Curtain have undergone a radiative and varied religious revival, with a large number of occult and New Religious Movements gaining popularity. Gnostic revivalists, New Age organizations, and Scientology splinter groups have found their way into much of the former Soviet bloc since the cultural and political shift resulting from the dissolution of the USSR. In Hungary, a significant number of citizens (relative to the size of the country’s population and compared to its neighbors) practice and/or adhere to new currents of Western Esotericism. In April 1997, the Fifth Esoteric Spiritual Forum was held for two days in the country and was attended at-capacity;
In August of the same year, the International Shaman Expo began, being
broadcast on live TV and ultimately taking place for 2 months wherein
various neo-Shamanist, Millenarian, mystic, neo-Pagan, and even UFO religionist congregations and figures were among the attendees.
Popular culture
In
2013, Asprem and Granholm highlighted that "contemporary esotericism is
intimately, and increasingly, connected with popular culture and new
media."
Granholm noted that esoteric ideas and images could be found in many aspects of Western popular media, citing such examples as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Avatar, Hellblazer, and His Dark Materials.
Granholm has argued that there are problems with the field in that it
draws a distinction between esotericism and non-esoteric elements of
culture which draw upon esotericism; citing the example of extreme metal,
he noted that it was extremely difficult to differentiate between
artists who were "properly occult" and those who referenced occult
themes and aesthetics in "a superficial way".
Writers interested in occult themes have adopted three different
strategies for dealing with the subject: those who are knowledgeable on
the subject including attractive images of the occult and occultists in
their work, those who disguise occultism within "a web of
intertextuality", and those who oppose it and seek to deconstruct it.
Academic study
London's Warburg Institute was one of the first centres to encourage the academic study of Western esotericism
The academic study of Western esotericism was pioneered in the early
20th century by historians of the ancient world and the European
Renaissance, who came to recognise that – although it had been ignored
by previous scholarship – the effect which pre-Christian and
non-rational schools of thought had exerted on European society and
culture was worthy of academic attention. One of the key centres for this was the Warburg Institute in London, where scholars like Frances Yates, Edgar Wind, Ernst Cassirer,
and D. P. Walker began arguing that esoteric thought had had a greater
effect on Renaissance culture than had been previously accepted. The work of Yates in particular, most notably her 1964 book Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition,
has been cited as "an important starting-point for modern scholarship
on esotericism", succeeding "at one fell swoop in bringing scholarship
onto a new track" by bringing wider awareness of the effect that
esoteric ideas had on modern science.
At the instigation of the scholar Henry Corbin, in 1965 the world's first academic post in the study of esotericism was established at the École pratique des hautes études in the Sorbonne, Paris; named the chair in the History of Christian Esotericism, its first holder was François Secret,
a specialist in the Christian Kabbalah, although he had little interest
in developing the wider study of esotericism as a field of research.
In 1979 Faivre assumed Secret's chair at the Sorbonne, which was
renamed the "History of Esoteric and Mystical Currents in Modern and
Contemporary Europe". Faivre has since been cited as being responsible for developing the study of Western esotericism into a formalised field, with his 1992 work L'ésotérisme having been cited as marking "the beginning of the study of Western esotericism as an academic field of research". He remained in the chair until 2002, when he was succeeded by Jean-Pierre Brach.
Faivre noted that there were two significant obstacles to
establishing the field. One was that there was an engrained prejudice
towards esotericism within academia, resulting in the widespread
perception that the history of esotericism was not worthy of academic
research.
The second was that esotericism is a trans-disciplinary field, the
study of which did not fit clearly within any particular discipline.
As Hanegraaff noted, Western esotericism had to be studied as a
separate field to religion, philosophy, science, and the arts, because
while it "participates in all these fields" it does not squarely fit
into any of them.
Elsewhere, he noted that there was "probably no other domain in the
humanities that has been so seriously neglected" as Western esotericism.
In 1980, the U.S.-based Hermetic Academy was founded by Robert A. McDermott as an outlet for American scholars interested in Western esotericism. From 1986 to 1990 members of the Hermetic Academy participated in panels at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religion under the rubric of the "Esotericism and Perennialism Group".
By 1994, Faivre could comment that the academic study of Western
esotericism had taken off in France, Italy, England, and the United
States, but he lamented the fact that it had not done so in Germany.
In 1999, the University of Amsterdam established a chair in the "History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents", which was occupied by Hanegraaff, while in 2005 the University of Exeter
created a chair in "Western Esotericism", which was taken by
Goodrick-Clarke, who headed the Exeter Center for the Study of
Esotericism. Thus, by 2008 there were three dedicated university chairs in the subject, with Amsterdam and Exeter also offering master's degree programs in it. Several conferences on the subject were held at the quintennial meetings of the International Association for the History of Religions, while a peer-reviewed journal, Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism began publication in 2001. 2001 also saw the foundation of the North American Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE), with the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE) being established shortly after.
Within a few years, Michael Bergunder expressed the view that it had become an established field within religious studies,
with Asprem and Granholm observing that scholars within other
sub-disciplines of religious studies had begun to take an interest in
the work of scholars of esotericism.
Asprem and Granholm noted that the study of esotericism had been dominated by historians and thus lacked the perspective of social scientists
examining contemporary forms of esotericism, a situation that they were
attempting to correct through building links with scholars operating in
Pagan studies and the study of new religious movements.
On the basis of the fact that "English culture and literature have been
traditional strongholds of Western esotericism", in 2011 Pia Brînzeu and
György Szönyi urged that English studies also have a role in this interdisciplinary field.
Emic and etic divisions
Emic and etic
refer to two kinds of field research done and viewpoints obtained,
emic, from within the social group (from the perspective of the subject)
and etic, from outside (from the perspective of the observer). Wouter Hanegraaff follows a distinction between an emic and an etic approach to religious studies.
The emic approach is that of the alchemist or theosopher. The
etic approach is that of the scholar as an historian, a researcher, with
a critical view. An empirical study of esotericism needs "emic material
and etic interpretation":
Emic denotes the believer’s point
of view. On the part of the researcher, the reconstruction of this emic
perspective requires an attitude of empathy which excludes personal
biases as far as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion, on the
other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars may introduce their own
terminology and make theoretical distinctions which are different from
those of the believers themselves.
Arthur Versluis proposes approaching esotericism through an "imaginative participation":
Esotericism, given all its varied
forms and its inherently multidimensional nature, cannot be conveyed
without going beyond purely historical information: at minimum, the
study of esotericism, and in particular mysticism, requires some degree
of imaginative participation in what one is studying.
Many scholars of esotericism have come to be regarded as respected
intellectual authorities by practitioners of various esoteric
traditions.
Although many scholars of esotericism have sought to emphasise that
"esotericism" is not a single object, practitioners who are reading this
scholarship have begun to regard it and think of it as a singular
object, with which they affiliate themselves.
Thus, Asprem and Granholm noted that the use of the term "esotericism"
among scholars "significantly contributes to the reification of the
category for the general audience – despite the explicated contrary intentions of most scholars in the field."
.jpg)
