Descent from Genghis Khan
in East Asia is well-documented by Chinese sources. His descent in West
Asia and Europe was documented through the 14th century, in texts
written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani and other Muslim historians. With the advent of genealogical DNA testing, a larger and broader circle of people have begun to claim descent from Genghis Khan.
Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son, had many more recorded progeny than his brothers Ögedei, Chagatai, and Tolui—but there is some doubt over his paternity. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, the boy was sent to Genghis by Chilger, who had kidnapped his first wife Börte,
keeping her in captivity for about a year. In one passage, Chagatai
refers to Jochi as "bastard" (although the true meaning of the Mongol
term is obscure). To this, Genghis Khan responds: "How dare you talk
about Jochi like this? Is not he the eldest of my heirs? That I never
heard such wicked words again!" (p255). All in all, Genghis Khan
pronounces the words "Jochi is my eldest son" thrice (p210, 242, 254).
Modern historians speculate that Jochi's disputed paternity was
the reason for his eventual estrangement from his father and for the
fact that his descendants never succeeded to the imperial throne. On the
other hand, Genghis always treated Jochi as his first son, while the
failure of the Jochid succession may be explained by Jochi's premature
death (which may have excluded his progeny from succession).
Another important consideration is that Genghis' descendants
intermarried frequently. For instance, the Jochids took wives from the Ilkhan dynasty of Persia, whose progenitor was Hulagu Khan. As a consequence, it is likely that many Jochids had other sons of Genghis Khan among their maternal ancestors.
Asia
Asian dynasties descended from Genghis Khan included the Yuan dynasty (Kublaids) of China, the Hulaguids of Persia, the Jochids of the Golden Horde, the Shaybanids of Siberia, and the Astrakhanids of Central Asia. As a rule, the Genghisid descent played a crucial role in Tatar politics. For instance, Mamai (1335–1380) had to exercise his authority through a succession of puppet khans but could not assume the title of khan himself because he lacked Genghisid lineage.
Timur Lenk (1336–1405), the founder of the Timurid dynasty, claimed descent from Genghis Khan. He associated himself with the family of Chagatai Khan
through marriage. He never assumed the title Khan for himself, but
employed two members of the Chagatai clan as formal heads of state. The Mughal imperial family of the Indian subcontinent descended from Timur through Babur and also from Genghis Khan (through his son Chagatai Khan).
The ruling Wang Clan of the Korean Goryeo dynasty became descendants of the Genghisids through the marriage between King Chungnyeol (reigned 1274–1308) and a daughter of Kublai Khan. All subsequent rulers of Korea for the next 80 years, through King Gongmin, also married Borjigid princesses.
The khans of the Khoshut Khanate were indirect descendants. They were descendants from a younger brother of Genghis Khan, Qasar.
As the Russian Empire absorbed Turkic polities, their Genghizid rulers frequently entered the Russian service. For instance, Kuchum's descendants became Russified as the Tsarevichs of Siberia. Descendants of Ablai Khan assumed in Russia the name of Princes Valikhanov. All these families asserted their Genghisid lineage. The only extant family of this group is the House of Giray, whose members left Soviet Russia for the United States and United Kingdom.
The Qing dynasty of China completely exterminated one branch (Ligdan Khan's descendants) of the Borjigids after an anti-Qing revolt in 1675 by Ejei Khan's brother Abunai and Abunai's son Borni against the Qing. The Qing Emperors then placed the Chahar Mongols under their direct rule. The Emperors of the Qing dynasty and the Emperor of Manchukuo were also indirect descendants by Qasar, a younger brother of Genghis Khan.
After the Mongol invasion of Rus', members of the Rurikid dynasty
of Russia often sought marriages with Mongol princesses. Many of these
marriages were sought for military and political advantage, as the
Russian princes were often feuding with each other. A marriage alliance
with the Mongol horde gave them better leverage in their struggles
against each other.
After spending several years at the Mongol court, Yury of Moscow sought to marry Konchak, a sister of Öz Beg Khan, which the Khan gave consent to. Konchak converted to Christianity, and was given the baptismal name Agatha. This marriage was a strategic political alliance that transformed Moscow in to the newest regional power in Russia, and severely weakened the power away from the Russian Prince of Tver, formerly a major power prior to the Mongol invasions.
Berke's nephew adopted the Christian name Peter and founded St. Peter's Monastery in Rostov, where his descendants existed for centuries as boyars.
Ties between Russian and Mongol royal families persisted for a long time. St. Fyodor the Black married a daughter of Mengu-Timur. She was baptized and given the Christian name Anna.
Male-line descendendants of Fyodor's marriage to the Tatar Princess
include all rulers of Yaroslavl (from then on) and over 20 princely
families (such as the Shakhovskoy, Lvov, or Prozorovsky, among others). After the 1917 revolution, some of these families were expelled from Russia.
According to Marie Favereau,
a feeling of mutual respect between the Russian and Mongol sides had
developed. The fact that Russian princes could marry Mongol princesses
is a sign that Mongol lords trusted their northern vassals. She also
notes that, even after the adoption of Islam by the Mongol khans, the
Mongols never took Russian women as concubines, unlike the Ottoman sultans.
Zerjal et al. (2003) identified a Y-chromosomal lineage
haplogroup C*(xC3c) present in about 8% of men in a region of Asia
"stretching from northeast China to Uzbekistan", which would be around 16 million men at the time of publication, "if [Zerjal et al's] sample is representative."
The authors propose that the lineage was likely carried by male-line
descendants of Genghis Khan, because of its presence in certain ethnic
groups rumored to be their descendants. One study published in the
Russian Journal of Genetics found that 24% of Mongolians carry this
haplogroup, and that it occurs in low frequencies in neighboring Turkic
states (with the exception of Kazakhstan).
A white paper by the American Society of Human Genetics Ancestry and
Ancestry Testing Task Force, Royal et al. (2010) observed the Zerjal et
al. hypothesis:
Although such a connection is by no
means impossible, we currently have no way of assessing how much
confidence to place in such a connection. We emphasize, however, that
whenever formal inferences about population history have been attempted
with uniparental systems, the statistical power is generally low. Claims
of connections, therefore, between specific uniparental lineages and
historical figures or historical migrations of peoples are merely
speculative.
In a 2017 review paper published in Human Genetics, authors Chiara Batini and Mark Jobling cast doubts on Zerjal's 2003 theory that Genghis Khan is linked to haplogroup C:
Ancient DNA data (Lkhagvasuren et al. 2016) from remains
in high-status Mongolian graves dated to 1130–1250 CE revealed MSY
lineages belonging to hg R1b, rather than hg C: there are a number of
explanations for such findings, but taken at face value, they do not
support the Genghis Khan hypothesis for the origin of the widespread
Asian expansion lineage (Zerjal et al. 2003).
Proposed candidate haplogroups and haplotypes
Over the years, following haplogroups have been proposed as candidades
C2b1a3a1c2-F5481 (C-M217*-Star Cluster / clade of C2*-ST): Widespread in Central Asia among Kazakhs, Hazaras and ordinary commoner Mongols.
The Kerey clan of the Kazakhs have a high amount of the C3*
star-cluster (C2*-ST) Y chromosome and is very high among Hazaras,
Kazakhs and Mongols in general.
However, in 2017 a Chinese research team suggested that the Y
chromosome C-M217*-Star Cluster likely traces back to ordinary Mongol
warriors, rather than Genghis Khan, and that "a direct linking of
haplogroup C-M217 to Genghis Khan has yet to be discovered." In a review paper published in Human Genetics, authors Chiara Batini and Mark Jobling cast doubts on Zerjal's 2003 theory that Genghis Khan is linked to haplogroup C
C2c1a1a1-M407: Carried by Mongol descendants of the Northern Yuan ruler from 1474 to 1517, Dayan Khan, an alleged male line descendant of Genghis Khan.
C2b1a1b1-F1756 : In 2019, a Chinese research team study suggested that Haplogroup C2b1a1b1-F1756 might be a candidate of the true Y lineage of Genghis Khan. The
Lu clan claimed to be the descendants of Khulgen, the sixth son of
Genghis Khan. A genetic study of the molecular genealogy of Northwest China shows that some members of Lu belong to Y-DNA haplogroup C2b1a1b1 F1756. This haplogroup is also observed in the Tore clan from Kazakhstan, who have claimed to be paternal descendants of Jochi, the first son of Genghis Khan. However, the claim that the Lu clan is descendant of Khulgen is controversial and is disputed by several other studies.
Research published in 2016 suggested that Genghis possibly belonged to the haplogroup Haplogroup R1b (R1b-M343). Five bodies, dating from about 1130–1250, were found in graves in Tavan Tolgoi, Mongolia. The authors suggested they were members of the Golden Family,
and linked the spread of R1b-M343 to the former territories of the
Mongol Empire. The authors suggested that the Tavan Tolgoi bodies the
female lineages of Genghis Khan's Borjigin clan, or to Genghis Khan's male lineage, rather than the Ongud clan.
In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the motorway contractor Mr. Prosser
is (unknown to himself) a direct patrilineal descendant of Genghis
Khan. This manifests itself in a predilection for fur hats, a desire to
have axes hanging above his front door, being slightly overweight and
occasional visions of screaming Mongol hordes.
Fictional character Shiwan Khan, who is described as the last living descendant of Genghis appears in The Shadow, a collection of serialized dramas, originally on 1930s radio. He also appeared in the 1994 film adaptation, The Shadow.
In a spoof of the 1989 comedy film Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure by the sketch show Robot Chicken,
a crowd member admonishes Bill and Ted for choosing Genghis Khan to
bring to the future as he slaughtered millions, erroneously claiming 6%
of all Mongolians were his direct descendants resulting from rape.
The family tree of "the Landas", a 17th-century family
Genealogy (from Ancient Greekγενεαλογία (genealogía) 'the making of a pedigree') is the study of families,
family history, and the tracing of their lineages. Genealogists use
oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records
to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees
of its members. The results are often displayed in charts or written as
narratives. The field of family history is broader than genealogy, and
covers not just lineage but also family and community history and
biography.
The record of genealogical work may be presented as a "genealogy", a "family history", or a "family tree".
In the narrow sense, a "genealogy" or a "family tree" traces the
descendants of one person, whereas a "family history" traces the
ancestors of one person, but the terms are often used interchangeably. A family history may include additional biographical information, family traditions, and the like.
The pursuit of family history and origins tends to be shaped by
several motives, including the desire to carve out a place for one's
family in the larger historical picture, a sense of responsibility to
preserve the past for future generations, and self-satisfaction in accurate storytelling. Genealogy research is also performed for scholarly or forensic purposes, or to trace legal next of kin to inherit under intestacy laws.
Overview
Twelve generations patrilineage of a Hindu Lingayat male from central Karnataka spanning over 275 years, depicted in descending order
Amateur genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of
their spouses. Professional genealogists may also conduct research for
others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their
own databases. They may work for companies that provide software or
produce materials of use to other professionals and to amateurs. Both
try to understand not just where and when people lived but also their
lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads
to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration
trends, and historical socioeconomic or religious conditions.
Genealogists sometimes specialize in a particular group, e.g., a Scottish clan; a particular surname, such as in a one-name study; a small community, e.g., a single village or parish, such as in a one-place study; or a particular, often famous, person. Bloodlines of Salem
is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes
members who can prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch
Trials or who simply choose to support the group.
Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies,
where novices can learn from more experienced researchers. Such
societies generally serve a specific geographical area. Their members
may also index records to make them more accessible or engage in
advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries.
Some schools engage students in such projects as a means to reinforce
lessons regarding immigration and history. Other benefits include family medical histories for families with serious medical conditions that are hereditary.
The terms "genealogy" and "family history" are often used
synonymously, but some entities offer a slight difference in definition.
The Society of Genealogists,
while also using the terms interchangeably, describes genealogy as the
"establishment of a pedigree by extracting evidence, from valid sources,
of how one generation is connected to the next" and family history as
"a biographical study of a genealogically proven family and of the
community and country in which they lived".
Motivation
Individuals conduct genealogical research for a number of reasons.
Personal or medical interest
Private
individuals research genealogy out of curiosity about their heritage.
This curiosity can be particularly strong among those whose family
histories were lost or unknown due to, for example, adoption or separation from family through divorce, death, or other situations.
In addition to simply wanting to know more about who they are and where
they came from, individuals may research their genealogy to learn about
any hereditary diseases in their family history.
There is a growing interest in family history in the media as a
result of advertising and television shows sponsored by large genealogy
companies, such as Ancestry.com. This, coupled with easier access to online records and the affordability of DNA tests, has both inspired curiosity and allowed those who are curious to easily start investigating their ancestry.
Community or religious obligation
In communitarian
societies, one's identity is defined as much by one's kin network as by
individual achievement, and the question "Who are you?" would be
answered by a description of father, mother, and tribe. New Zealand Māori, for example, learn whakapapa (genealogies) to discover who they are.
Family history plays a part in the practice of some religious belief systems. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has a doctrine of baptism for the dead, which necessitates that members of that faith engage in family history research.
In East Asian countries that were historically shaped by Confucianism, many people follow a practice of ancestor worship as well as genealogical record-keeping. Ancestors' names are inscribed on tablets and placed in shrines, where rituals are performed. Genealogies are also recorded in genealogy books. This practice is rooted in the belief that respect for one's family is a foundation for a healthy society.
Establishing identity
Royal families, both historically and in modern times, keep records of their genealogies in order to establish their right to rule
and determine who will be the next sovereign. For centuries in various
cultures, one's genealogy has been a source of political and social
status.
Some countries and indigenous tribes allow individuals to obtain citizenship based on their genealogy. In Ireland and in Greece,
for example, an individual can become a citizen if one of their
grandparents was born in that country, regardless of their own or their
parents' birthplace. In societies such as Australia or the United
States, by the 20th century, there was growing pride in the pioneers and
nation-builders. Establishing descent from these was, and is, important
to lineage societies, such as the Daughters of the American Revolution and The General Society of Mayflower Descendants.
Modern family history explores new sources of status, such as
celebrating the resilience of families that survived generations of
poverty or slavery, or the success of families in integrating across
racial or national boundaries. Some family histories even emphasize
links to celebrity criminals, such as the bushranger Ned Kelly in Australia.
Historians and geneticists
may carry out genealogical research to gain a greater understanding of
specific topics in their respective fields, and some may employ
professional genealogists in connection with specific aspects of their
research. They also publish their research in peer-reviewed journals.
The introduction of postgraduate courses in genealogy in recent
years has given genealogy more of an academic focus, with the emergence
of peer-reviewed journals in this area. Scholarly genealogy is beginning
to emerge as a discipline in its own right, with an increasing number
of individuals who have obtained genealogical qualifications carrying
out research on a diverse range of topics related to genealogy, both
within academic institutions and independently.
Discrimination and persecution
In the US, the "one-drop rule"
asserted that any person with even one ancestor of black ancestry ("one
drop" of "black blood") was considered black. It was codified into the
law of some States (e.g. the Racial Integrity Act of 1924) to reinforce racial segregation.
Genealogy was also used in Nazi Germany to determine whether a person was considered a "Jew" or a "Mischling" (Mischling Test), and whether a person was considered as "Aryan" (Ahnenpass).
Historically, in Western societies, the focus of genealogy was on the kinship and descent
of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of
claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with heraldry, in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in their coats of arms. Modern scholars consider many claimed noble ancestries to be fabrications, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that traced the ancestry of several English kings to the god Woden.
Some family trees have been maintained for considerable periods. The family tree of Confucius has been maintained for over 2,500 years and is listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the largest extant family tree. The fifth edition of the Confucius Genealogy was printed in 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC).
Modern times
In
modern times, genealogy has become more widespread, with commoners as
well as nobility researching and maintaining their family trees. Genealogy received a boost in the late 1970s with the television broadcast of Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley. His account of his family's descent from the African tribesman Kunta Kinte inspired many others to study their own lines.
With the advent of the Internet,
the number of resources readily accessible to genealogists has vastly
increased, resulting in an explosion of interest in the topic. Genealogy is one of the most popular topics on the Internet. The Internet has become a major source not only of data for genealogists but also of education and communication.
Genealogical research in the United States was first systematized in the early 19th century, especially by John Farmer (1789–1838).
Before Farmer's efforts, tracing one's genealogy was seen as an attempt
by the American colonists to secure a measure of social standing, an
aim that was counter to the new republic's egalitarian, future-oriented
ideals (as outlined in the Constitution).
As Fourth of July celebrations commemorating the Founding Fathers and
the heroes of the Revolutionary War became increasingly popular,
however, the pursuit of "antiquarianism", which focused on local
history, became acceptable as a way to honor the achievements of early
Americans.
Farmer capitalized on the acceptability of antiquarianism to frame
genealogy within the early republic's ideological framework of pride in
one's American ancestors. He corresponded with other antiquarians in New
England, where antiquarianism and genealogy were well established, and
became a coordinator, booster, and contributor to the growing movement.
In the 1820s, he and fellow antiquarians began to produce genealogical
and antiquarian tracts in earnest, slowly gaining a devoted audience
among the American people. Though Farmer died in 1839, his efforts led
to the creation of the New England Historic Genealogical Society (NEHGS), one of New England's oldest and most prominent organizations dedicated to the preservation of public records. NEHGS publishes the New England Historical and Genealogical Register.
The Genealogical Society of Utah, founded in 1894, later became the Family History Department of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The department's research facility, the Family History Library, which Utah.com states is "the largest genealogical library in the world",
was established to assist in tracing family lineages for special
religious ceremonies which Latter-day Saints believe will seal family
units together for eternity. Latter-day Saints believe that this
fulfilled a biblical prophecy stating that the prophet Elijah would return to "turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers." There is a network of church-operated Family History Centers all over the country and around the world, where volunteers assist the public with tracing their ancestors. Brigham Young University
offers bachelor's degree, minor, and concentration programs in Family
History and is the only school in North America to offer this.
The American Society of Genealogists
is the scholarly honorary society of the U.S. genealogical field.
Founded by John Insley Coddington, Arthur Adams, and Meredith B. Colket,
Jr., in December 1940, its membership is limited to 50 living fellows.
ASG has semi-annually published The Genealogist, a scholarly journal of genealogical research, since 1980. Fellows of the American Society of Genealogists, who bear the post-nominal acronym FASG, have written some of the most notable genealogical materials of the last half-century.
Genealogical
research is a complex process that uses historical records and
sometimes genetic analysis to demonstrate kinship. Reliable conclusions
are based on the quality of sources (ideally, original records), the
information within those sources, (ideally, primary or firsthand
information), and the evidence that can be drawn (directly or
indirectly), from that information. In many instances, genealogists must
skillfully assemble indirect or circumstantial evidence
to build a case for identity and kinship. All evidence and conclusions,
together with the documentation that supports them, is then assembled
to create a cohesive genealogy or family history.
Genealogists begin their research by collecting family documents and stories. This creates a foundation for documentary research,
which involves examining and evaluating historical records for evidence
about ancestors and other relatives, their kinship ties, and the events
that occurred in their lives. As a rule, genealogists begin with the
present and work backwards in time. Historical, social, and family
context is essential to achieving correct identification of individuals
and relationships. Source citation is also important when conducting
genealogical research. To keep track of collected material, family group sheets and pedigree charts are used. Formerly handwritten, these can now be generated by genealogical software.
Variations of VNTR allele lengths in six individuals
Because a person's DNA contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA is sometimes used for genealogical research. Three DNA types are of particular interest. Mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA) is contained in the mitochondria of the egg cell and is passed
down from a mother to all of her children, both male and female;
however, only females pass it on to their children. Y-DNA
is present only in males and is passed down from a father to his sons
(direct male line) with only minor mutations occurring over time. Autosomal DNA
(atDNA), is found in the 22 non-sex chromosomes (autosomes) and is
inherited from both parents; thus, it can uncover relatives from any
branch of the family. A genealogical DNA test
allows two individuals to find the probability that they are, or are
not, related within an estimated number of generations. Individual genetic test results are collected in databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor. See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project. Some tests are limited to either the patrilineal or the matrilineal line.
Collaboration
Most genealogy software programs can export information about persons and their relationships in a standardized format called a GEDCOM. In that format, it can be shared with other genealogists, added to databases, or converted into family web sites. Social networking service
(SNS) websites allow genealogists to share data and build their family
trees online. Members can upload their family trees and contact other
family historians to fill in gaps in their research. In addition to the
(SNS) websites, there are other resources that encourage genealogists to
connect and share information, such as rootsweb.ancestry.com and rsl.rootsweb.ancestry.com.
Volunteerism
Volunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy. These range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.
On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards such as Rootschat and mailing lists
on particular surnames, regions, and other topics. These forums can be
used to try to find relatives, request record lookups, obtain research
advice, and much more. Many genealogists participate in loosely
organized projects, both online and off. These collaborations take
numerous forms. Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate cases, and publish the indexes, either online or off. These indexes can be used as finding aids
to locate original records. Other projects transcribe or abstract
records. Offering record lookups for particular geographic areas is
another common service. Volunteers do record lookups or take photos in
their home areas for researchers who are unable to travel.
Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies worldwide. Most societies have a unique area of focus, such as a particular surname, ethnicity, geographic area, or descendancy from participants in a given historical event.
Genealogical societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers and
may offer a broad range of services, including maintaining libraries
for members' use, publishing newsletters, providing research assistance
to the public, offering classes or seminars, and organizing record
preservation or transcription projects.
Genealogy software is used to collect, store, sort, and display
genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software accommodates basic
information about individuals, including births, marriages, and deaths.
Many programs allow for additional biographical information, including
occupation, residence, and notes, and most also offer a method for
keeping track of the sources for each piece of evidence.
Most programs can generate basic kinship charts and reports, allow for
the import of digital photographs and the export of data in the GEDCOM
format (short for GEnealogical Data COMmunication) so that data can be
shared with those using other genealogy software. More advanced features
include the ability to restrict the information that is shared, usually
by removing information about living people out of privacy
concerns; the import of sound files; the generation of family history
books, web pages and other publications; the ability to handle same-sex marriages
and children born out of wedlock; searching the Internet for data; and
the provision of research guidance. Programs may be geared toward a
specific religion, with fields relevant to that religion, or to specific
nationalities or ethnic groups, with source types relevant for those
groups. Online resources involve complex programming and large data
bases, such as censuses.
Records and documentation
A family history page from an antebellum era family Bible
Genealogists use a wide variety of records in their research. To
effectively conduct genealogical research, it is important to understand
how the records were created, what information is included in them, and
how and where to access them.
List of record types
Records that are used in genealogy research include:
To keep track of their citizens, governments began keeping records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility. In England and Germany, for example, such record keeping started with parish registers in the 16th century.
As more of the population was recorded, there were sufficient records
to follow a family. Major life events, such as births, marriages, and
deaths, were often documented with a license, permit, or report.
Genealogists locate these records in local, regional or national offices
or archives and extract information about family relationships and recreate timelines of persons' lives.
In China, India and other Asian countries, genealogy books
are used to record the names, occupations, and other information about
family members, with some books dating back hundreds or even thousands
of years. In the eastern Indian state of Bihar, there is a written tradition of genealogical records among Maithil Brahmins and Karna Kayasthas called "Panjis", dating to the 12th century CE. Even today these records are consulted prior to marriages.
The LDS Church has engaged in large-scale microfilming of records of
genealogical value. Its Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah,
houses over 2 million microfiche and microfilms of genealogically
relevant material, which are also available for on-site research at over
4,500 Family History Centers worldwide.
FamilySearch's website includes many resources for genealogists: a FamilyTree database, historical records, digitized family history books, resources and indexing for African American genealogy such as slave and bank records, and a Family History Research Wiki containing research guidance articles.
Indexing ancestral information
Indexing
is the process of transcribing parish records, city vital records, and
other reports, to a digital database for searching. Volunteers and
professionals participate in the indexing process. Since 2006, the
microfilm in the FamilySearch granite mountain vault is in the process
of being digitally scanned, available online, and eventually indexed.
For example, after the 72-year legal limit for releasing personal information for the United States Census was reached in 2012, genealogical groups cooperated to index the 132 million residents registered in the 1940 United States Census.
Between 2006 and 2012, the FamilySearch indexing effort produced more than 1 billion searchable records.
Record loss and preservation
Sometimes
genealogical records are destroyed, whether accidentally or on purpose.
In order to do thorough research, genealogists keep track of which
records have been destroyed so they know when information they need may
be missing. Of particular note for North American genealogy is the 1890 United States Census,
which was destroyed in a fire in 1921. Although fragments survive, most
of the 1890 census no longer exists. Those looking for genealogical
information for families that lived in the United States in 1890 must
rely on other information to fill that gap.
War is another cause of record destruction. During World War II, many European records were destroyed. Communists in China during the Cultural Revolution and in Korea during the Korean War destroyed genealogy books kept by families.
Often records are destroyed due to accident or neglect. Since
genealogical records are often kept on paper and stacked in high-density
storage, they are prone to fire, mold, insect damage, and eventual
disintegration. Sometimes records of genealogical value are deliberately
destroyed by governments or organizations because the records are
considered to be unimportant or a privacy risk. Because of this,
genealogists often organize efforts to preserve records that are at risk
of destruction. FamilySearch has an ongoing program that assesses what
useful genealogical records have the most risk of being destroyed, and
sends volunteers to digitize such records. In 2017, the government of Sierra Leone
asked FamilySearch for help preserving their rapidly deteriorating
vital records. FamilySearch has begun digitizing the records and making
them available online. The Federation of Genealogical Societies also organized an effort to preserve and digitize United States War of 1812
pension records. In 2010, they began raising funds, which were
contribute by genealogists around the United States and matched by Ancestry.com.
Their goal was achieved and the process of digitization was able to
begin. The digitized records are available for free online.
Types of information
Genealogists
who seek to reconstruct the lives of each ancestor consider all
historical information to be "genealogical" information. Traditionally,
the basic information needed to ensure correct identification of each
person are place names, occupations, family names,
first names, and dates. However, modern genealogists greatly expand
this list, recognizing the need to place this information in its
historical context in order to properly evaluate genealogical evidence
and distinguish between same-name individuals. A great deal of
information is available for British ancestry with growing resources for other ethnic groups.
Family names
Lineage of a family, c. 1809
Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of
genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for
researchers.
In many cultures, the name of a person refers to the family to which they belongs. This is called the family name, surname, or last name. Patronymics
are names that identify an individual based on the father's name. For
example, Marga Olafsdottir is Marga, daughter of Olaf, and Olaf Thorsson
is Olaf, son of Thor. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames
were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used
the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English
rule mandated surname usage. In Iceland, patronymics are used by a majority of the population.
In Denmark and Norway patronymics and farm names were generally in use
through the 19th century and beyond, though surnames began to come into
fashion toward the end of the 19th century in some parts of the country.
Not until 1856 in Denmark and 1923 in Norway were there laws requiring surnames.
The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other
relationships, and immigration may cause difficulty in genealogical
research. For instance, women in many cultures have routinely used their
spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her
name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names.
Her birth name (maiden name) may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely.
Children may sometimes assume stepparent, foster parent, or adoptive
parent names. Because official records may reflect many kinds of surname
change, without explaining the underlying reason for the change, the
correct identification of a person recorded identified with more than
one name is challenging. Immigrants to America often Americanized their
names.
Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death, and marriage records.
Given names
Genealogical data regarding given names (first names) is subject to many of the same problems as are family names and place names. Additionally, the use of nicknames
is very common. For example, Beth, Lizzie or Betty are all common for
Elizabeth, and Jack, John and Jonathan may be interchanged.
Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be
inherited, follow naming customs, or be treated as part of the family
name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family
name and the father's family name are used by the children.
Historically, naming traditions existed in some places and
cultures. Even in areas that tended to use naming conventions, however,
they were by no means universal. Families may have used them some of the
time, among some of their children, or not at all. A pattern might also
be broken to name a newborn after a recently deceased sibling, aunt or
uncle.
An example of a naming tradition from England, Scotland and Ireland:
Child
Namesake
1st son
paternal grandfather
2nd son
maternal grandfather
3rd son
father
4th son
father's oldest brother
1st daughter
maternal grandmother
2nd daughter
paternal grandmother
3rd daughter
mother
4th daughter
mother's oldest sister
Another example is in some areas of Germany, where siblings were
given the same first name, often of a favourite saint or local nobility,
but different second names by which they were known (Rufname).
If a child died, the next child of the same gender that was born may
have been given the same name. It is not uncommon that a list of a
particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated.
Personal names have periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon
to find many similarly named people in a generation, and even similarly
named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary,
and John".
Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Others may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).
Place names
While
the locations of ancestors' residences and life events are core
elements of the genealogist's quest, they can often be confusing. Place
names may be subject to variant spellings by partially literate scribes.
Locations may have identical or very similar names. For example, the
village name Brockton occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire.
Shifts in political borders must also be understood. Parish, county,
and national borders have frequently been modified. Old records may
contain references to farms and villages that have ceased to exist. When
working with older records from Poland, where borders and place names
have changed frequently in past centuries, a source with maps and sample
records such as A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents can be invaluable.
Available sources may include vital records (civil or church
registration), censuses, and tax assessments. Oral tradition is also an
important source, although it must be used with caution. When no source
information is available for a location, circumstantial evidence may
provide a probable answer based on a person's or a family's place of
residence at the time of the event.
Maps and gazetteers are important sources for understanding the
places researched. They show the relationship of an area to neighboring
communities and may be of help in understanding migration patterns. Family tree mapping using online mapping tools such as Google Earth (particularly when used with Historical Map overlays such as those from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection) assist in the process of understanding the significance of geographical locations.
Dates
It is wise
to exercise extreme caution with dates. Dates are more difficult to
recall years after an event, and are more easily mistranscribed than
other types of genealogical data.
Therefore, one should determine whether the date was recorded at the
time of the event or at a later date. Dates of birth in vital records or
civil registrations and in church records at baptism are generally
accurate because they were usually recorded near the time of the event.
Family Bibles are often a source for dates, but can be written from
memory long after the event. When the same ink and handwriting is used
for all entries, the dates were probably written at the same time and
therefore will be less reliable since the earlier dates were probably
recorded well after the event. The publication date of the Bible also
provides a clue about when the dates were recorded since they could not
have been recorded at any earlier date.
People sometimes reduce their age on marriage, and those under
"full age" may increase their age in order to marry or to join the armed
forces. Census returns are notoriously unreliable for ages or for assuming an approximate death date. Ages over 15 in the 1841 census in the UK are rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years.
Although baptismal dates are often used to approximate birth
dates, some families waited years before baptizing children, and adult
baptisms are the norm in some religions. Both birth and marriage dates
may have been adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies.
Calendar changes must also be considered. In 1752, England and her American colonies changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. In the same year, the date the new year began was changed. Prior to 1752 it was 25 March;
this was changed to 1 January. Many other European countries had
already made the calendar changes before England had, sometimes
centuries earlier. By 1751 there was an 11-day discrepancy between the
date in England and the date in other European countries.
For further detail on the changes involved in moving from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, see: Gregorian calendar.
The French Republican Calendar
or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar proposed during the
French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years
from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days in 1871 in Paris. Dates in
official records at this time use the revolutionary calendar and need
"translating" into the Gregorian calendar for calculating ages etc.
There are various websites which do this.
Occupations
Occupational
information may be important to understanding an ancestor's life and
for distinguishing two people with the same name. A person's occupation
may have been related to his or her social status, political interest,
and migration pattern. Since skilled trades are often passed from father
to son, occupation may also be indirect evidence of a family
relationship.
It is important to remember that a person may change occupations,
and that titles change over time as well. Some workers no longer fit
for their primary trade often took less prestigious jobs later in life,
while others moved upwards in prestige.
Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season
and local trade requirements. Census returns may contain some
embellishment; e.g., from labourer to mason, or from journeyman to master craftsman.
Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if
poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a
hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another.
Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The
perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" may turn out to
describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol
district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regionally preferred
terms. For example, "shoemaker" and "cordwainer" have the same meaning.
Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade
community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.
Occupational data may be reported in occupational licences, tax
assessments, membership records of professional organizations, trade
directories, census returns, and vital records (civil registration).
Occupational dictionaries are available to explain many obscure and
archaic trades.
Reliability of sources
Information
found in historical or genealogical sources can be unreliable and it is
good practice to evaluate all sources with a critical eye. Factors
influencing the reliability of genealogical information include: the
knowledge of the informant (or writer); the bias and mental state of the
informant (or writer); the passage of time and the potential for
copying and compiling errors.
The quality of census data has been of special interest to historians, who have investigated reliability issues.
Knowledge of the informant
The
informant is the individual who provided the recorded information.
Genealogists must carefully consider who provided the information and
what they knew. In many cases the informant is identified in the record
itself. For example, a death certificate usually has two informants: a
physician who provides information about the time and cause of death and
a family member who provides the birth date, names of parents, etc.
When the informant is not identified, one can sometimes deduce
information about the identity of the person by careful examination of
the source. One should first consider who was alive (and nearby) when
the record was created. When the informant is also the person recording
the information, the handwriting can be compared to other handwriting
samples.
When a source does not provide clues about the informant,
genealogists should treat the source with caution. These sources can be
useful if they can be compared with independent sources. For example, a
census record by itself cannot be given much weight because the
informant is unknown. However, when censuses for several years concur on
a piece of information that would not likely be guessed by a neighbor,
it is likely that the information in these censuses was provided by a
family member or other informed person. On the other hand, information
in a single census cannot be confirmed by information in an undocumented
compiled genealogy since the genealogy may have used the census record
as its source and might therefore be dependent on the same misinformed
individual.
Motivation of the informant
Even
individuals who had knowledge of the fact, sometimes intentionally or
unintentionally provided false or misleading information. A person may
have lied in order to obtain a government benefit (such as a military
pension), avoid taxation, or cover up an embarrassing situation (such as
the existence of a non-marital child). A person with a distressed state
of mind may not be able to accurately recall information. Many
genealogical records were recorded at the time of a loved one's death,
and so genealogists should consider the effect that grief may have had
on the informant of these records.
The effect of time
The
passage of time often affects a person's ability to recall information.
Therefore, as a general rule, data recorded soon after the event are
usually more reliable than data recorded many years later. However, some
types of data are more difficult to recall after many years than
others. One type especially prone to recollection errors is dates. Also
the ability to recall is affected by the significance that the event had
to the individual. These values may have been affected by cultural or
individual preferences.
Copying and compiling errors
Genealogists
must consider the effects that copying and compiling errors may have
had on the information in a source. For this reason, sources are
generally categorized in two categories: original and derivative. An
original source is one that is not based on another source. A derivative
source is information taken from another source. This distinction is
important because each time a source is copied, information about the
record may be lost and errors may result from the copyist misreading,
mistyping, or miswriting the information. Genealogists should consider
the number of times information has been copied and the types of
derivation a piece of information has undergone. The types of
derivatives include: photocopies, transcriptions, abstracts,
translations, extractions, and compilations.
In addition to copying errors, compiled sources (such as
published genealogies and online pedigree databases) are susceptible to
misidentification errors and incorrect conclusions based on
circumstantial evidence. Identity errors usually occur when two or more
individuals are assumed to be the same person. Circumstantial or
indirect evidence does not explicitly answer a genealogical question,
but either may be used with other sources to answer the question,
suggest a probable answer, or eliminate certain possibilities. Compilers
sometimes draw hasty conclusions from circumstantial evidence without
sufficiently examining all available sources, without properly
understanding the evidence, and without appropriately indicating the
level of uncertainty.
Primary and secondary sources
In
genealogical research, information can be obtained from primary or
secondary sources. Primary sources are records that were made at the
time of the event, for example a death certificate would be a primary
source for a person's death date and place. Secondary sources are
records that are made days, weeks, months, or even years after an event.
Standards and ethics
Organizations
that educate and certify genealogists have established standards and
ethical guidelines they instruct genealogists to follow.
Research standards
Genealogy
research requires analyzing documents and drawing conclusions based on
the evidence provided in the available documents. Genealogists need
standards to determine whether or not their evaluation of the evidence
is accurate. In the past, genealogists in the United States borrowed
terms from judicial law
to examine evidence found in documents and how they relate to the
researcher's conclusions. However, the differences between the two
disciplines created a need for genealogists to develop their own
standards. In 2000, the Board for Certification of Genealogists published their first manual of standards. The Genealogical Proof Standard
created by the Board for Certification of Genealogists is widely
distributed in seminars, workshops, and educational materials for
genealogists in the United States. Other genealogical organizations
around the world have created similar standards they invite genealogists
to follow. Such standards provide guidelines for genealogists to
evaluate their own research as well as the research of others.
Standards for genealogical research include:
Clearly document and organize findings.
Cite all sources in a specific manner so that others can locate them and properly evaluate them.
Locate all available sources that may contain information relevant to the research question.
Analyze findings thoroughly, without ignoring conflicts in records or negative evidence.
Rely on original, rather than derivative sources, wherever possible.
Use logical reasoning based on reliable sources to reach conclusions.
Acknowledge when a specific conclusion is only "possible" or "probable" rather than "proven".
Acknowledge that other records that have not yet been discovered may overturn a conclusion.
Ethical guidelines
Genealogists
often handle sensitive information and share and publish such
information. Because of this, there is a need for ethical standards and
boundaries for when information is too sensitive to be published.
Historically, some genealogists have fabricated information or have
otherwise been untrustworthy. Genealogical organizations around the
world have outlined ethical standards as an attempt to eliminate such
problems. Ethical standards adopted by various genealogical
organizations include:
Respect copyright laws
Acknowledge where one consulted another's work and do not plagiarize the work of other researchers.
Treat original records with respect and avoid causing damage to them or removing them from repositories.
Treat archives and archive staff with respect.
Protect the privacy of living individuals by not publishing or
otherwise disclosing information about them without their permission.
Disclose any conflicts of interest to clients.
When doing paid research, be clear with the client about scope of research and fees involved.
Do not fabricate information or publish false or unproven information as proven.
Be sensitive about information found through genealogical research that may make the client or family members uncomfortable.
In 2015, a committee presented standards for genetic genealogy
at the Salt Lake Institute of Genealogy. The standards emphasize that
genealogists and testing companies should respect the privacy of clients
and recognize the limits of DNA tests. It also discusses how
genealogists should thoroughly document conclusions made using DNA
evidence.
In 2019, the Board for the Certification of Genealogists officially
updated their standards and code of ethics to include standards for
genetic genealogy.
An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family
of parents and their children to include aunts, uncles, grandparents,
cousins or other relatives, all living nearby or in the same household.
Particular forms include the stem and joint families.
Description
In
some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in
place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in
one household or close proximity, relatives in addition to an immediate
family.
An example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her
children due to old age. In modern Western cultures dominated by immediate family
constructs, the term has come to be used generically to refer to
grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins, whether they live together
within the same household or not.
However, it may also refer to a family unit in which several
generations live together within a single household. In some cultures,
the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family.
A stem family, a kind of extended family, first discussed by Frédéric Le Play,
parents will live with one child and his/her spouse, as well as the
children of both, while other children will leave the house or remain in
it, unmarried. The stem family is sometimes associated with
inegalitarian inheritance practices, as in Japan and Korea,
but the term has also been used in some contexts to describe a family
type where parents live with a married child and his or her spouse and
children, but the transfer of land and moveable property is more or less
egalitarian, as in the case of traditional Romania, northeastern Thailand or Mesoamerican indigenous peoples.
In these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives
the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable
property.
In an extended family, parents and their children's families may often live under a single roof. This type of joint family
often includes multiple generations in the family. Three to four
generations stay together under a single roof. The joint family form a
coherent group, follow common culture, have equal rights over property
and celebrate all the festivals and functions of the family together.
From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different
meanings. With globalization, increasing urbanization people have become
more individualistic and consider family secondary.
Sociology
Often,
it has been presumed that extended family groups sharing a single
household enjoy specific advantages, such as a greater sense of security
and belonging due to sharing a wider pool of members to serve as
resources during a crisis, and more role models to help perpetuate
desired behavior and cultural values. However, even in cultures in which
adults are expected to leave home after marriage to begin their own
nuclear-based households, the extended family often forms an important
support network offering similar advantages. Particularly in
working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own
households within the same general area as their parents, aunts, uncles,
and grandparents. These extended family members tend to gather often
for family events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one
another, both emotionally and financially.
While contemporary families may be considered more mobile in
general than in the past, sociologists find that this has not
necessarily resulted in the disintegration of extended family networks.
Rather, technological aids such as the Internet and social networking sites such as Facebook are now commonly used to retain contact and maintain these family ties.
Particularly in the case of single-parent households, it can be
helpful for extended family members to share a single household in order
to share the burden of meeting expenses. On the other hand, sharing a
household can present a disadvantage depending on the sizes and number
of families involved, particularly when only a few members shoulder most
of the responsibility to meet expenses for the family's basic needs.
An estimated 49 million Americans (16.1% of the total population)
live in homes comprising three or more generations, up from 42 million
in 2000. This situation is similar in Western Europe. Another 34 percent
live within a kilometer of their children.
It is common for today's world to have older children in nuclear
families to reach walking up to driving age ranges before meeting
extended family members. Geographical isolation is common for
middle-class families who move based on occupational opportunities while
family branches "retain [their] basic independence".
Some extended families hold family reunions or opportunities for
gathering regularly, normally around holiday time frames, to reestablish
and integrate a stronger family connection. This allows individual
nuclear families to connect with extended family members.
Australian Aborigines
are another group for whom the concept of family extends well beyond
the nuclear model. Aboriginal immediate families include aunts, uncles
and a number of other relatives who would be considered "distant
relations" in the context of the nuclear family. Aboriginal families
have strict social rules regarding whom they can marry. Their family
structure incorporates a shared responsibility for all tasks.
Where families consist of multiple generations living together,
the family is usually headed by the elders. More often than not, it
consists of grandparents, their sons, and their sons' families in
patriarchal and especially patrilineal societies. Extended families make
discussions together and solve the problem.
Historically, for generations South Asia had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system or undivided family. The joint family system is an extended family arrangement prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India, consisting of many generations living in the same home, all bound by the common relationship.
A patrilineal joint family consists of an older man and his wife, his
sons and unmarried daughters, his sons’ wives and children. The family
is headed by a patriarch, usually the oldest male, who makes decisions
on economic and social matters on behalf of the entire family. The
patriarch's wife generally exerts control over the household, minor
religious practices and often wields considerable influence in domestic
matters. Family income flows into a common pool, from which resources
are drawn to meet the needs of all members, which are regulated by the
heads of the family.
In the early stages of the twentieth century, it was not very common
to find many families with extended kin in their household, which may
have been due to the idea that the young people in these times typically
waited to establish themselves and start a household before they
married and filled a home.
As life expectancy becomes older and programs such as Social Security
benefit the elderly, the old are now beginning to live longer than prior
generations, which then may lead to generations mixing together. According to results of a study by Pew Research Center
in 2010, approximately 50 million (nearly one in six) Americans,
including rising numbers of seniors, live in households with at least
two adult generations, and often three. It has become an ongoing trend
for elderly generations to move in and live with their children, as they
can give them support and help with everyday living. The main reasons
cited for this shift are an increase in unemployment and slumped housing
prices and arrival of new immigrants from Asian and South American
countries. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 2.7 million grandparents raising their grandchildren in 2009. The dramatic increase in grandparent-headed households has been attributed to many factors including parental substance abuse.
In 2003, the number of U.S. "family groups" where one or more
subfamilies live in a household (e.g. a householder's daughter has a
child. The mother-child is a subfamily) was 79 million. Two-point-six
million of U.S. multigenerational family households in 2000 had a
householder, the householder's children, and the householder's
grandchildren. That's 65 percent of multigenerational family households
in the U.S. So it is twice as common for a grandparent to be the
householder than for adult children to bring parents into their home.
The increase in the number of multigenerational households has created
complex legal issues, such as who in the household has authority to
consent to police searches of the family home or private bedrooms.
Besides the legal issues that multigenerational households could
create, there are issues that may arise from households where the
grandparents are the sole guardians. The Supporting Grandparents Raising
Grandchildren Act was signed into law on July 7, 2018 after unanimously
passing the U.S. House and Senate. It was first introduced in the
Senate on May 10, 2017 by Senators Susan Collins (R-ME) and Bob Casey Jr.
(D-PA). Out of this came The Supporting Grandparents Raising
Grandchildren Advisory Council which will identify, promote, coordinate,
and disseminate to the public information, resources, and the best
practices available to help grandparents and other older relatives both
meet the needs of the children in their care and maintain their own
physical and mental health and emotional well-being.
Mexico
Mexican
society is composed of three-generational units consisting of
grandparents, children, and grandchildren. Further close relationships
are maintained with the progenitors
of these families and are known as kin or "cousins". When one is born,
they are born into two extended families, a kinship group of sometimes
70 people. The group traditionally acts as a cohesive unit, pooling
resources and influence. The extended family also consists of spouses
and siblings. This is in contrast to the two generational American
nuclear family.
Some scholars have used the term "grand-family" to describe the
close relationship between grandparents, children, and grandchildren in
Mexican society.
Larissa A. Lomnitz and Marisol Perez-Lizaur, for example, describe the
grand-family as "the basic unit of family solidarity in Mexico", where
basic family obligations between grandparents, children, and
grandchildren include "economic support, participation in family
rituals, and social recognition".
Economic background
The relative economic deprivation of racial and ethnic minorities
leads to higher levels of extended family involvement; primarily because
blacks and Latinos have less money and education than whites, they are
more likely to give and receive help from kin.
Having family on which one can rely is very important in times of
economic hardship especially if there are children involved. Living in
an extended family provides constant care for children and support for
other members of the family as well. Analysis of the National Survey of
Families and Households
suggests there are differences between whites and other ethnic groups
because of economic differences among racial groups: blacks and Latinos
less often have the economic resources that allow the kind of
privatization that the nuclear family entails. Extended kinship, then,
is a survival strategy in the face of economic difficulties.
Being able to rely on not only two parents but grandparents, aunts,
uncles, brothers, and sisters helps to create a support system which in
turn brings families closer together. Living in an extended family
provides many things that a nuclear family does not.
The number of multigenerational households has been steadily
rising because of the economic hardships people are experiencing today. According to the AARP, multigenerational households have increased from 5 million in 2000 to 6.2 million in 2008.
"There's no question that with some ethnicities that are growing in
America, it is more mainstream and traditional to have multigenerational
households. We're going to see that increasing in the general
population as well," says AARP's Ginzler.
While high unemployment and housing foreclosures of the recession have
played a key role in the trend, Pew Research Center exec VP and
co-author of its multigenerational household study Paul Taylor said it
has been growing over several decades, fueled by demographic and
cultural shifts such as the rising number of immigrants and the rising
average age of young-adult marriages.
The importance of an extended family is one that many people may not
realize, but having a support system and many forms of income may help
people today because of the difficulties in finding a job and bringing
in enough money.
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