The
segment AB is perpendicular to the segment CD because the two angles it
creates (indicated in orange and blue) are each 90 degrees. The segment
AB can be called the perpendicular from A to the segment CD, using "perpendicular" as a noun. The point B is called the foot of the perpendicular from A to segment CD, or simply, the foot of A on CD.
In elementary geometry, two geometric objects are perpendicular if their intersection forms right angles (angles that are 90 degrees or π/2 radians wide) at the point of intersection called a foot. The condition of perpendicularity may be represented graphically using the perpendicular symbol,
⟂. Perpendicular intersections can happen between two lines (or two
line segments), between a line and a plane, and between two planes.
Perpendicularity is one particular instance of the more general mathematical concept of orthogonality;
perpendicularity is the orthogonality of classical geometric objects.
Thus, in advanced mathematics, the word "perpendicular" is sometimes
used to describe much more complicated geometric orthogonality
conditions, such as that between a surface and its normal vector.
A line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the two lines intersect at a right angle. Explicitly, a first line is perpendicular to a second line if (1) the two lines meet; and (2) at the point of intersection the straight angle on one side of the first line is cut by the second line into two congruentangles. Perpendicularity can be shown to be symmetric,
meaning if a first line is perpendicular to a second line, then the
second line is also perpendicular to the first. For this reason, we may
speak of two lines as being perpendicular (to each other) without
specifying an order. A great example of perpendicularity can be seen in
any compass, note the cardinal points; North, East, South, West (NESW)
The line N-S is perpendicular to the line W-E and the angles N-E, E-S,
S-W and W-N are all 90° to one another.
Perpendicularity easily extends to segments and rays. For example, a line segment is perpendicular to a line segment
if, when each is extended in both directions to form an infinite line,
these two resulting lines are perpendicular in the sense above. In
symbols, means line segment AB is perpendicular to line segment CD.
A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane
if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it intersects.
This definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between
lines.
Two planes in space are said to be perpendicular if the dihedral angle at which they meet is a right angle.
Foot of a perpendicular
The word foot
is frequently used in connection with perpendiculars. This usage is
exemplified in the top diagram, above, and its caption. The diagram can
be in any orientation. The foot is not necessarily at the bottom.
More precisely, let A be a point and m a line. If B is the point of intersection of m and the unique line through A that is perpendicular to m, then B is called the foot of this perpendicular through A.
Construction of the perpendicular
Construction of the perpendicular (blue) to the line AB through the point P.
Construction
of the perpendicular to the half-line h from the point P (applicable
not only at the end point A, M is freely selectable), animation at the
end with pause 10 s
Step 1 (red): construct a circle with center at P to create points A' and B' on the line AB, which are equidistant from P.
Step 2 (green): construct circles centered at A' and B' having equal
radius. Let Q and P be the points of intersection of these two
circles.
Step 3 (blue): connect Q and P to construct the desired perpendicular PQ.
To prove that the PQ is perpendicular to AB, use the SSS congruence theorem for QPA' and QPB' to conclude that angles OPA' and OPB' are equal. Then use the SAS congruence theorem for triangles OPA' and OPB' to conclude that angles POA and POB are equal.
To make the perpendicular to the line g at or through the point P using Thales's theorem, see the animation at right.
The Pythagorean theorem
can be used as the basis of methods of constructing right angles. For
example, by counting links, three pieces of chain can be made with
lengths in the ratio 3:4:5. These can be laid out to form a triangle,
which will have a right angle opposite its longest side. This method is
useful for laying out gardens and fields, where the dimensions are
large, and great accuracy is not needed. The chains can be used
repeatedly whenever required.
In relationship to parallel lines
The arrowhead marks indicate that the lines a and b, cut by the transversal linec, are parallel.
If two lines (a and b) are both perpendicular to a third line (c), all of the angles formed along the third line are right angles. Therefore, in Euclidean geometry, any two lines that are both perpendicular to a third line are parallel to each other, because of the parallel postulate. Conversely, if one line is perpendicular to a second line, it is also perpendicular to any line parallel to that second line.
In the figure at the right, all of the orange-shaded angles are
congruent to each other and all of the green-shaded angles are congruent
to each other, because vertical angles are congruent and alternate interior angles formed by a transversal cutting parallel lines are congruent. Therefore, if lines a and b are parallel, any of the following conclusions leads to all of the others:
One of the angles in the diagram is a right angle.
One of the orange-shaded angles is congruent to one of the green-shaded angles.
Line c is perpendicular to line a.
Line c is perpendicular to line b.
All four angles are equal.
In computing distances
In geometry, the perpendicular distance between two objects is the distance from one to the other, measured along a line that is perpendicular to one or both.
The distance from a point to a line
is the distance to the nearest point on that line. That is the point at
which a segment from it to the given point is perpendicular to the
line.
Likewise, the distance from a point to a curve is measured by a line segment that is perpendicular to a tangent line to the curve at the nearest point on the curve.
The distance from a point to a plane
is measured as the length from the point along a segment that is
perpendicular to the plane, meaning that it is perpendicular to all
lines in the plane that pass through the nearest point in the plane to
the given point.
Perpendicular regression fits a line to data points by minimizing the sum of squared perpendicular distances from the data points to the line.
Other geometric curve fitting methods using perpendicular distance to measure the quality of a fit exist, as in total least squares.
The concept of perpendicular distance may be generalized to
In the two-dimensional plane, right angles can be formed by two intersected lines if the product of their slopes equals −1. Thus defining two linear functions: y1 = a1x + b1 and y2 = a2x + b2, the graphs of the functions will be perpendicular and will make four right angles where the lines intersect if a1a2 = −1. However, this method cannot be used if the slope is zero or undefined (the line is parallel to an axis).
For another method, let the two linear functions be: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0. The lines will be perpendicular if and only if a1a2 + b1b2 = 0. This method is simplified from the dot product (or, more generally, the inner product) of vectors. In particular, two vectors are considered orthogonal if their inner product is zero.
In circles and other conics
Circles
Each diameter of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent line to that circle at the point where the diameter intersects the circle.
A line segment through a circle's center bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
If the intersection of any two perpendicular chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the other chord into lengths c and d, then a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 equals the square of the diameter.
The sum of the squared lengths of any two perpendicular chords
intersecting at a given point is the same as that of any other two
perpendicular chords intersecting at the same point, and is given by 8r2 – 4p2 (where r is the circle's radius and p is the distance from the center point to the point of intersection).
Thales' theorem
states that two lines both through the same point on a circle but going
through opposite endpoints of a diameter are perpendicular. This is
equivalent to saying that any diameter of a circle subtends a right
angle at any point on the circle, except the two endpoints of the
diameter.
Ellipses
The major and minor axes of an ellipse are perpendicular to each other and to the tangent lines to the ellipse at the points where the axes intersect the ellipse.
The major axis of an ellipse is perpendicular to the directrix and to each latus rectum.
Parabolas
In a parabola,
the axis of symmetry is perpendicular to each of the latus rectum, the
directrix, and the tangent line at the point where the axis intersects
the parabola.
From a point on the tangent line to a parabola's vertex, the other tangent line to the parabola is perpendicular to the line from that point through the parabola's focus.
The orthoptic property
of a parabola is that If two tangents to the parabola are perpendicular
to each other, then they intersect on the directrix. Conversely, two
tangents which intersect on the directrix are perpendicular. This
implies that, seen from any point on its directrix, any parabola
subtends a right angle.
Hyperbolas
The transverse axis of a hyperbola is perpendicular to the conjugate axis and to each directrix.
The product of the perpendicular distances from a point P on a
hyperbola or on its conjugate hyperbola to the asymptotes is a constant
independent of the location of P.
In a square or other rectangle, all pairs of adjacent sides are perpendicular. A right trapezoid is a trapezoid that has two pairs of adjacent sides that are perpendicular.
An orthodiagonal quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose diagonals are perpendicular. These include the square, the rhombus, and the kite. By Brahmagupta's theorem, in an orthodiagonal quadrilateral that is also cyclic,
a line through the midpoint of one side and through the intersection
point of the diagonals is perpendicular to the opposite side.
By van Aubel's theorem,
if squares are constructed externally on the sides of a quadrilateral,
the line segments connecting the centers of opposite squares are
perpendicular and equal in length.
Many religions have expressed positions on what is acceptable to consume as a means of intoxication for spiritual, pleasure, or medicinal
purposes. Psychoactive substances may also play a significant part in
the development of religion and religious views as well as in rituals.
The most common drugs in the historical religions are cannabis and alcohol.
Neolithic
In the book Inside the Neolithic Mind, the authors, archaeologists David Lewis-Williams and David Pearce argue that hallucinogenic drugs formed the basis of neolithic religion and rock art.
Ancient Greece
Some scholars have suggested that Ancient Greek mystery religions employed entheogens, such as the ergot-spiked Kykeon central to the Eleusinian Mysteries, which contained LSD-like compounds to induce a trance or dream state.
Research conducted by John R. Hale, Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Jeffrey P.
Chanton and Henry A. Spiller suggests that the prophecies of the Delphic Oracle were uttered by Priestesses under the influence of ethylene gas exuded from the ground.
Hinduism has a history of psychedelic usage going back to the Vedic period. The oldest scriptures of Hinduism Rigveda(1500 BCE), mentions ritualistic consumption of a divine psychedelic known as soma. There are many theories about the recipe of Soma. Non-Indian researchers have proposed candidates including Amanita muscaria, Psilocybe cubensis, Peganum harmala and Ephedra sinica. According to recent philological and archaeological studies, and in addition, direct preparation instructions confirm in the Rig Vedic Hymns (Vedic period) Ancient Soma most likely consisted of Poppy, Phaedra/Ephedra (plant) and Cannabis.
In the Vedas, the same word soma is used for the drink, the plant, and its deity. Drinking soma produces immortality (Amrita, Rigveda 8.48.3). Indra and Agni
are portrayed as consuming soma in copious quantities. In the vedic
mythology, Indra drank large amounts of soma while fighting the serpent
demon Vritra. The consumption of soma by human beings is well attested in Vedic ritual.
We have drunk soma and become immortal; we have attained the light, the Gods discovered.
Now what may foeman's malice do to harm us? What, O Immortal, mortal man's deception?
Cannabis
The plant Cannabis is also mentioned in the Atharvaveda-Samhita (1200BCE) & Puranas (circa 200BCE) as one of the 5 of the holy plants.
“To the five kingdoms of the plants which Soma rules as Lord we speak.
Darbha, hemp, barley, mighty power: may these deliver us from woe.”
‘भङ्ग’ (bhang) refers to the cannabis plant.
Datura
The hallucinogenic Datura plant has also been used in Ayurvedic contexts & are often used to adorn the Lingam in many Shiva temples & festivals like Navarathri. The plant goes through a detoxification process to remove the psychoactive elements when utilized in standard Ayurveda practice. In the Vamana Purana, it is mentioned that the Datura flower appeared from the chest of Shiva
& offering it the will remove evil, suffering & wrongdoings.
There are also Sadhus who are worshipers of Shiva & sometimes smoke
the leaves and seeds of Datura plant, though is done with caution
because it can be poisonous & cause very vivid hallucinations
(delirium).
In Buddhism the Right View (samyag-dṛṣṭi / sammā-diṭṭhi)
can also be translated as "right perspective", "right outlook" or
"right understanding", is the right way of looking at life, nature, and
the world as they really are for us. It is to understand how our reality
works. It acts as the reasoning with which someone starts practicing
the path. It explains the reasons
for our human existence, suffering, sickness, aging, death, the
existence of greed, hatred, and delusion. Right view gives direction and
efficacy to the other seven path factors. It begins with concepts and
propositional knowledge, but through the practice of right
concentration, it gradually becomes transmuted into wisdom, which can
eradicate the fetters of the mind. An understanding of right view will inspire the person to lead a virtuous life in line with right view. In the Pāli and Chinese canons, it is explained thus:
Right livelihood
Right livelihood (samyag-ājīva / sammā-ājīva).
This means that practitioners ought not to engage in trades or
occupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for
other living beings. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained
thus:
And what is right livelihood? There
is the case where a disciple of the noble ones, having abandoned
dishonest livelihood, keeps his life going with right livelihood: This
is called right livelihood.
More concretely today interpretations include "work and career need to be integrated into life as a Buddhist,"
it is also an ethical livelihood, "wealth obtained through rightful
means" (Bhikku Basnagoda Rahula) – that means being honest and ethical
in business dealings, not to cheat, lie or steal.
As people are spending most of their time at work, it’s important to
assess how our work affects our mind and heart. So important questions
include "How can work become meaningful? How can it be a support, not a
hindrance, to spiritual practice — a place to deepen our awareness and
kindness?"
The five types of businesses that should not be undertaken:
Business in poison: producing or trading in any kind of poison or a toxic product designed to kill.
The fifth precept
According to the fifth precept of the Pancasila, Buddhists
are meant to refrain from any quantity of "fermented or distilled
beverages" which would prevent mindfulness or cause heedlessness. In the PaliTipitaka the precept is explicitly concerned with alcoholic beverages:
"I undertake the training rule to abstain from fermented drink that causes heedlessness."
Surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.
However, caffeine and tea are permitted, even encouraged for monks of most traditions, as it is believed to promote wakefulness.
Generally speaking, the vast majority of Buddhists and Buddhist
sects denounce and have historically frowned upon the use of any
intoxicants by an individual who has taken the five precepts. Most
Buddhists view the use and abuse of intoxicants to be a hindrance in the
development of an enlightened mind. However, there are a few historical and doctrinal exceptions.
Many modern Buddhist schools have strongly discouraged the use of
psychoactive drugs of any kind; however, they may not be prohibited in
all circumstances in all traditions. Some denominations of tantric or esoteric Buddhism especially exemplify the latter, often with the principle skillful means:
Alcohol
For example, as part of the ganachakratsok ritual (as well as Homa, abhisheka and sometimes drubchen) some Tibetan Buddhists and Bönpos have been known to ingest small amounts of grain alcohol (called amrit or amrita)
as an offering. If a member is an alcoholic, or for some other reason
does not wish to partake in the drinking of the alcoholic offering, then
he or she may dip a finger in the alcohol and then flick it three times
as part of the ceremony.
Amrita is also possibly the same as, or at least in some sense a conceptual derivative of the ancient Hindu soma. (The latter which historians often equate with Amanita muscaria or other Amanitapsychoactivefungi.) Crowley (1996) states:
"Undoubtedly, the striking parallels between "The legend about
Chakdor" and the Hindu legend of the origin of soma show that the
Buddhist amrita and the Hindu soma were at one time understood to be
identical. Moreover, the principal property of amrita is, to this day,
perceived by Buddhists as being a species of inebriation, however
symbolically this inebriation may be interpreted. Why else would beer
(Tibetan chhang, "barley beer") be used by yogins as a symbolic
substitute for amrita [Ardussi]? Conversely, why else would the term
bDud.rTsi be used as a poetic synonym for beer?
Conversely, in Tibetan and Sherpa lore there is a story about a monk who came across a woman who told him that he must either:
The monk thought to himself, "well, surely if I kill the goat then
I will be causing great suffering since a living being will die. If I
sleep with the woman then I will have broken another great vow of a monk
and will surely be lost to the ways of the world. Lastly, if I drink
the beer then perhaps no great harm will come and I will only be
intoxicated for a while, and most importantly I will only be hurting
myself." (In the context of the story this instance is of particular importance to him because monks in the Mahayana and Vajrayana try to bring all sentient beings to enlightenment as part of their goal.)
So the monk drank the mug of beer and then he became very drunk.
In his drunkenness he proceeded to kill the goat and sleep with the
woman, breaking all three vows and, at least in his eyes, doing much
harm in the world. The lesson of this story is meant to be that, at
least according to the cultures from which it delineates, alcohol causes
one to break all of one's vows, in a sense that one could say it is the
cause of all other harmful deeds.
The Vajrayana teacher Drupon Thinley Ningpo Rinpoche has said that as part of the five precepts which a layperson takes upon taking refuge, that although they must refrain from taking intoxicants, they may drink enough so as they do not become drunk. Bhikkus and Bhikkunis (monks and nuns, respectively), on the other hand, who have taken the ten vows as part of taking refuge and becoming ordained, cannot imbibe any amount of alcohol or other drugs, other than pharmaceuticals taken as medicine.
Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, is known as teetotaler and non-smoker.
There is some evidence regarding the use of deliriantDatura seeds (known as candabija) in Dharmic rituals associated with many tantras – namely the Vajramahabhairava, Samputa, Mahakala, Guhyasamaja, Tara and Krsnayamari tantras – as well as cannabis and other entheogens in minority Vajrayana sanghas. Ronald M Davidson says that in Indian Vajrayana, Datura was:
“employed as a narcotic paste or as wood in a fire
ceremony and could be easily absorbed through the skin or the lungs. The
seeds of this powerful narcotic, termed "passion seeds" (candabija),
are the strongest elements and contain the alkaloids hyoscine,
hyoscyamine, and atropine in forms that survive burning or boiling. In
even moderate doses, datura can render a person virtually immobile with
severe belladonna-like hallucinations.”
In the Profound Summarizing Notes on the Path Presented as the Three Continua, a SakyaLamdre text, by Jamyang Khyentse Wangchuk (1524-1568), the use of Datura
in combination with other substances, is prescribed as part of a
meditation practice meant to establish that "All the phenomena included
in apparent existence, samsara and nirvana, are not established outside
of one's mind."
Ian Baker writes that Tibetan terma literature such as the Vima Nyingtik
describes "various concoctions of mind altering substances, including
datura and oleander, which can be formed into pills or placed directly
in the eyes to induce visions and illuminate hidden contents of the
psyche."
A book titled Zig Zag Zen: Buddhism and Psychedelics
(2002), details the history of Buddhism and the use of psychedelic
drugs, and includes essays by modern Buddhist teachers on the topic.
Zen
Zen Buddhism is known for stressing the precepts. In Japan, however, where Zen flourished historically, there are a number of examples of misconduct on the part of monks and laypeople alike. This often involved the use of alcohol, as sake drinking has and continues to be a well known aspect of Japanese culture.
The Japanese Zen monk and abbot, shakuhachi player and poet Ikkyu was known for his unconventional take on Zen Buddhism: His style of expressing dharma
is sometimes deemed "Red Thread Zen" or "Crazy Cloud Zen" for its
unorthodox characteristics. Ikkyu is considered both a heretic and saint
in the Rinzai Zen tradition, and was known for his derogatory poetry, open alcoholism and for frequenting the services of prostitutes in brothels. He personally found no conflict between his lifestyle and Buddhism.
There are several koans (Zen riddles) referencing the drinking of sake (rice wine); for instance Mumonkan's tenth koan titled Seizei Is Utterly Destitute:
'Seizei said to Sozan, "Seizei is utterly destitute. Will you give
him support?" Sozan called out: "Seizei!" Seizei responded, "Yes sir?!"
Sozan said, "You have finished three cups of the finest wine in China,
and still you say you have not yet moistened your lips!"'
Another monk, Gudo, is mentioned in a koan called Finding a Diamond on a Muddy Road buying a gallon of sake.
Judaism maintains that people do not own their bodies – they belong to God.
As a result, Jews are not permitted to harm, mutilate, destroy or take
risks with their bodies, life or health with activities such as taking
life-threatening drugs. For these reasons, rabbis generally prohibit the use of drugs except in controlled medical situations. Even without a risk to life or health, addictive drugs are discouraged due to their negative social effects.
When issues of physical, mental, and social harm are not present,
it is debated whether drugs can have any positive spiritual value.
According to Rabbi Walter Wurzburger, "Proximity to God cannot be reached by putting oneself into a trance either through physical or chemical means".
Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan suggested that some medieval kabbalists may have used some psychedelic drugs. Indeed, one can find in Kabbalistic medical manuals cryptic references to the hidden powers of mandrake, harmal and other psychoactive plants, though the exact usage of these powers is hard to decipher. Some kabbalists, including Isaac of Acco and Abraham Abulafia, mention a method of "philosophical meditation", which involves drinking a cup of "strong wine of Avicenna", which would induce a trance and would help the adept to ponder over difficult philosophical questions. The exact recipe of this wine remains unknown; Avicenna refers in his works to the effects of opium and datura extracts.
According to Aryeh Kaplan, some have translated kaneh-bosem (קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם), an ingredient in the holy anointing oil (Exodus 30:23), as cannabis. However, the term kaneh-bosem
literally translates to "sweet cane" (an association that is difficult
to make with cannabis), and most lexicographers, botanists, and biblical
commentators translate it as "calamus" (Acorus calamus), a species known throughout the Middle East for its fragrance since the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Use of alcohol in moderation is an accepted part of Judaism. The Hebrew Bible states that "wine gladdens man's heart" (Psalms 104:15), and a single cup of wine is drunk for common rituals such as kiddush (though grape juice may be used instead). Nevertheless, excessive use of alcohol is condemned. Prayer and priestly service are forbidden while intoxicated, and numerous Biblical figures met their downfall through drunkenness.
The Talmud states that wine received its Hebrew name (whose sound
somewhat resembles a howl) because it "brings lament to the world". The holiday of Purim
is exceptional in that on this date drunkenness is encouraged in some
communities, in commemoration of the drunkenness which plays a
significant role in the Book of Esther.
In Hasidic Judaism alcohol consumption is more common, especially at communal religious events like the farbrengen or tisch, where alcohol often accompanies singing and Torah study. If the drinking is moderate, for the purpose of Divine service, and done together with other chassidim, it is considered useful for expanding the mind and providing enthusiasm in the service of God. Nevertheless, excessive consumption is still discouraged; for example, the Lubavitcher Rebbe forbade his Chassidim under the age of 40 to consume more than 4 small shots of hard liqueurs.
The use of nicotine is well known in Hasidic communities. Stories are told about miracles and spiritual journeys performed by the Baal Shem Tov and other Tzaddikim with the help of their smoking pipe.
Hasidim valued smoking both as part of their general goal to raise the
spiritual "sparks" that are allegedly present in base physical
phenomena, and for the practical goal of experiencing better
concentration while under its influence.
Nevertheless, since the health impacts of smoking have become
understood by modern medicine, there has been a strong movement to
discourage and prohibit smoking.
Caffeine use is accepted in Judaism, and played a significant role in the spread of nighttime rituals such as Tikkun Chatzot.
Nevertheless, there was initially some opposition from rabbis who were
concerned that nighttime gatherings or the coffeehouse atmosphere could
lead to illicit behavior.
Many Christian
denominations disapprove of the use of most illicit drugs. Many
denominations permit the moderate use of socially and legally acceptable
drugs like alcohol, caffeine and tobacco. Some Christian denominations permit smoking tobacco,
while others disapprove of it. Many denominations do not have any
official stance on drug use, some more-recent, Pseudo-Christian
denominations (e.g. Mormons, and Jehovah’s Witnesses) discourage or prohibit the use of any of these substances.
In the Eucharist, wine represents (or among Christians who believe in some form of Real Presence, like the Catholic, Lutheran and Orthodox churches, actually is) the blood of Christ. Lutherans believe in the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, that the body and blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms."
of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants
orally eat and drink the holy body and blood of Christ Himself as well
as the bread and wine (cf. Augsburg Confession, Article 10) in this Sacrament. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the Sacramental Union." It has been inaccurately called "consubstantiation", a term which is specifically rejected by most Lutheran churches and theologians.
On the other hand, some Protestant Christian denominations, such as Baptists and Methodists associated with the temperance movement, encourage or require teetotalism, as well as abstinence from cultivating and using tobacco.
In some Protestant denominations, grape juice or non-alcoholic wine is
used in place of wine in the administration of Holy Communion.
Members of the Dunkard Brethren
Church shall abstain from the use of intoxicating or addictive
substances, such as narcotics, nicotine, marijuana, or alcoholic
beverages (except as directed by a physician). Using, raising,
manufacturing, buying or selling them by Christians is inconsistent with
the Christian lifestyle and testimony. Members of the Dunkard Brethren
Church who do so should be counseled in love and forbearance. If they
manifest an unwilling or arbitrary spirit, they subject themselves to
the discipline of the church, even to expulsion in extreme cases. We
implore members to accept the advice and counsel of the church and
abstain from all of the above. Since members are to be examples to the
world (Romans 14:20-21) indulgence in any of these activities
disqualifies then for Church or Sunday School work or as delegates to
District or General Conference.
The best-known Western prohibition against alcohol happened in the
United States in the 1920s, where concerned prohibitionists were worried
about its dangerous side effects. However, the demand for alcohol
remained and criminals stepped in and created the supply. The
consequences of organized crime and the popular demand for alcohol led
to alcohol being legalized again.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is supportive of scientific medicine. It promotes eradication of illicit drug use and promotes abstinence against tobacco and alcohol.,
and promotes a measured and balanced approach to use of both medicinal
drugs as well as natural remedies (which it neither discourages or
prohibits), promotes the control of medicines that may be abused, and promotes vaccination and immunization.
Alcohol, or just wine (in the views of some), are considered haram (unlawful).
The Muslim-Majority nations of Turkey and Egypt were instrumental in banning opium, cocaine, and cannabis when the League of Nations
committed to the 1925 International Convention relating to opium and
other drugs (later the 1934 Dangerous Drugs Act). The primary goal was
to ban opium and cocaine, but cannabis was added to the list, and it
remained there largely unnoticed due to the much more heated debate over
opium and cocaine. The 1925 Act has been the foundation upon which
every subsequent policy in the United Nations has been founded.
There are no prohibitions in Islam on alcohol for scientific,
industrial or automotive use and cannabis is generally permitted for
medicinal purposes.
In spite of these restrictions on substance use, the recreational
use of cannabis still occurs widely throughout many Muslim nations.
Baháʼí Faith
Followers of the Baháʼí Faith are forbidden to drink alcohol
or to take drugs, unless prescribed by doctors. Accordingly, the sale
and trafficking of such substances is also forbidden. Smoking is
discouraged but not prohibited.
Rastafari movement
Many Rastafari believe cannabis, which they call "ganja," "the herb," or "Kaya," is a sacred gift of Jah.
It may be used for spiritual purposes to commune with God, but should
not be used profanely. The use of other drugs, however, including
alcohol, is frowned upon. Many believe that the wine Jesus/Iyesus drank
was not an alcoholic beverage, but simply the juice of grapes or other
fruits.
While some Rastafari suggest that the Hebrew Bible
may refer to marijuana, it is generally held by academics specializing
in the lexicography of the text that cannabis is not documented or
mentioned. Some popular writers have argued that there is evidence for
religious use of cannabis in the Hebrew Bible, although this hypothesis and some of the specific case studies (e.g., John Allegro in relation to Qumran, 1970) have been "widely dismissed as erroneous" (Merlin, 2003). The primary advocate of a religious use of cannabis plant in early Judaism was Sula Benet (1967), who claimed that the plant kaneh bosm קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם mentioned five times in the Hebrew Bible, and used in the holy anointing oil of the Book of Exodus, was in fact cannabis, although lexicons of Hebrew and dictionaries of plants of the Bible such as by Michael Zohary (1985), Hans Arne Jensen (2004) and James A. Duke (2010) and others identify the plant in question as either Acorus calamus or Cymbopogon citratus.
Groundation
A
"groundation" (also spelled "grounation") or "binghi" is a holy day;
the name "binghi" is derived from "Nyabinghi" (literally "Nya" meaning
"black" and "Binghi" meaning "victory"). Binghis are marked by much
dancing, singing, feasting, and the smoking of "ganja", and can last for
several days.
Bible verses which Rastas believe justify cannabis use
...thou shalt eat the herb of the field.
Genesis 3.18
...eat every herb of the land.
Exodus 10:12
Better is a dinner of herb where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith.
Proverbs 15:17
Beliefs about other drugs
According
to many Rastas, the illegality of cannabis in many nations is evidence
of persecution of Rastafari. They are not surprised that it is illegal,
viewing Cannabis as a powerful substance that opens people's minds to
the truth – something the Babylon system, they reason, clearly does not
want. Cannabis use is contrasted with the use of alcohol and other
drugs, which they feel destroy the mind.
Asatru
Alcoholic drinks are commonly used during Asatru blóts but non-alcoholic drinks can be substituted.
Lead-based paint
was widely used in the United States because of its durability. The
United States banned the manufacture of lead-based house paint in 1978
due to health concerns.
Lead has long been considered to be a harmful environmental pollutant. Cited cases of lead poisoning date back to the early 20th century. In the July 1904 edition of its monthly publication, paint manufacturer, Sherwin-Williams,
reported the dangers of paint containing lead, noting that a French
expert had deemed lead paint "poisonous in a large degree, both for the
workmen and for the inhabitants of a house painted with lead colors."
In 1971, Congress
banned the use of lead-based paint in residential projects (including
residential structures and environments) constructed by, or with the
assistance of, the federal government. The Consumer Product Safety Commission followed with implementing regulations, effective in 1978. Additional regulations regarding lead abatement, testing and related issues have been issued by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Much of the government's response to the lead public health
problems in the 1970s can be credited to the work of epidemiologist and
pediatrician, Philip J. Landrigan, who conducted detailed studies of lead poisoning near lead refineries, as well as the effects of lead in gasoline.
In 1991, Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services, Louis Wade Sullivan,
called lead the "number one environmental threat to the health of
children in the United States." Humans are exposed to lead through air,
drinking water, food, contaminated soil, deteriorating paint, and dust.
Airborne lead enters the body by breathing or swallowing lead particles
or dust once it has settled. Old lead-based paint is the most
significant source of lead exposure in the U.S.Most homes built before 1960 contain heavily leaded paint. Some homes built as recently as 1978 may also contain lead paint.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) National Center for Health Statistics monitors blood lead levels in the United States.
Experts use a new level based on the U.S. population of children ages
1-5 years who are in the top 2.5% of children when tested for lead in
their blood (when compared to children who are exposed to more lead than
most children). Currently that is 3.5 micrograms of lead per deciliter
of blood.
Overview
Definition
The
District of Columbia defines "lead-based paint" as any "paint, surface
coating that contains lead equal to or exceeding one milligram per
square centimeter (1.0 mg/cm2) or 0.5% by weight."
Some states have adopted this or similar definitions of "lead-based
paint." These definitions are used to enforce regulations that apply to
certain activities conducted in housing constructed prior to 1978, such
as abatement, or the permanent elimination of a "lead-based paint
hazard."
The U.S. government and many states have regulations regarding
lead-based paint. Many of them apply to evaluating a property for
lead-based paint. There are two different testing procedures that are
similar but yield different information. Lead-based paint inspections
will evaluate all painted surfaces in a complex to determine where
lead-based paint, if any, is present. The procedures for lead
inspections is outlined in the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) Guidelines, Chapter 7, 1997 Revision. The other testing is a
lead-based paint risk assessment. In this testing, only deteriorated
painted surfaces are tested and dust wipe samples are collected. This
information will help the risk assessor determine if there are any lead hazards.
Many property owners decided to get a combination of both tests to
determine where the lead-based paint is present and what hazards are
present as well. Risk assessments are outlined in the HUD Guidelines,
Chapter 5. In addition, if a child is poisoned in a property, the owner
may be required to perform abatement (permanent elimination of the lead
hazard).
The Lead-Based Paint Disclosure Regulation
EPA flyer on lead-based paint disclosure
In 1996, the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the
Environmental Protection Agency enacted the Lead-Based Paint Disclosure
Regulation.
It requires owners of pre-1978 "target housing" to disclose to
potential buyers or renters all known information about the presence of
lead-based paint and/or lead-based paint hazards in the property. It
requires that the potential buyer or tenant be given the lead
information pamphlet, "Protect Your Family From Lead In Your Home," or
other EPA-approved pamphlet as well as a specific disclosure statement.
The option of whether to test for the presence of lead-based paint is
left to the owner, so long as a decision not to test is disclosed.
Renovation, Repair and Painting
The
EPA issued a new regulation called 'Renovation, Repair and Painting'
(RRP) regarding the renovation of residential housing and child-occupied
buildings built before 1978 on April 22, 2008. The rule (Federal Register: July 15, 2009 (Volume 74, Number 134)) became effective April 22, 2010. Under the rule, contractors
performing renovation, repair and painting projects that disturb
lead-based coatings (including lead paint, shellac or varnish) in
child-occupied facilities built before 1978 must be certified and must
follow specific work practices to prevent lead contamination. EPA’s RRP
rule impacts many construction trades, including general contractors and special trade contractors, painters, plumbers, carpenters, glaziers, wood floor refinishers and electricians.
Activities performed by all of these trades can disturb lead-based
paint and have the potential to create hazardous lead dust. For most
individuals, eight hours of training is required. However, individuals
who have successfully completed renovation courses developed by HUD or
EPA, or an abatement worker or supervisor course accredited by EPA or an
authorized State or Tribal program, can become certified renovators by
taking a four-hour EPA-accredited renovator refresher training.
The RRP rule is controversial, primarily due to the increased
cost remodelers incur as a result of having to set up dust containment
apparatuses, including sealing off doorways and HVAC ducts with plastic. Various national trade associations have been very vocal in their opposition,
some going so far as to sue the EPA. Though the EPA considered
expanding the rule to require contractors to pass a third-party dust
wipe clearance exam these revisions were rejected in July, 2011.
Although the rule was not fully implemented until April 2010,
certain elements were required before, and others required attention
well before April 2010.
Before April 2009, contractors that disturb paint in homes,
residential buildings, schools and child care facilities built prior to
1978 had to provide lead hazard information prior to the start of the
job to building owners, occupants, and to the families of children using
the facilities by distributing EPA’s new Renovate Right brochure.
As of April 2009, trainers could begin to apply to EPA or an
EPA-approved state for accreditation, and, once approved, contractors
and construction trade workers could begin to take the training to
become certified.
Beginning October 2009, firms could apply for EPA or state certification.
Beginning April 2010, all businesses engaged in renovation, repair
or painting activities in homes, residential buildings, schools and
child care facilities built prior to 1978 must be certified, use
certified workers, and follow specific lead-safe work practices to
prevent lead contamination.
State action against the lead paint industry
The state of Rhode Island filed a public nuisancelawsuit in 1999 (State of Rhode Island v. Lead Industries Association)
to force the former manufacturers of lead paint to pay for the cleanup
of current lead hazards in Rhode Island. After a trial that ended in a hung jury in 2002, the state refiled the case. In February 2006, the jury decided in favor of the state and said that Sherwin-Williams,
NL Industries and Millennium Holdings would have to pay for the
clean-up of lead paint in the state. On July 1, 2008, the Rhode Island
Supreme Court in a landmark decision overturned the verdict, dismissing the case stating that "the State of Rhode Island 'cannot allege' facts sufficient to state a claim for common law public nuisance against lead pigment manufacturers."
In 2007, the Missouri Supreme Court and the New Jersey Supreme Court
also rejected the use of the public nuisance theory in lead paint
lawsuits, leaving Ohio and California as the only two remaining public
nuisance cases.
The California Supreme Court has reviewed the contingency fee agreement between the municipalities and private counsel. A briefing schedule is currently being set. In recent rulings, the Supreme Court held the contingent fee
agreement was improper, stating that “When a government attorney has a
personal interest in the litigation, the neutrality so essential to the
system is violated.”
While the City of Columbus, Ohio voluntarily dropped its lawsuit against the paint industry after the Rhode Island decision, the State of Ohio's suit remains.
Humans can be poisoned during unsafe renovations or repainting jobs
on housing that has lead paint. Therefore, homeowners are encouraged to
carefully stabilize any deteriorated (peeling, chipping, cracking,
etc.) paint in a lead-safe manner. More than 250,000 children in the
United States have significantly harmful levels of lead in their bodies. There is no safe level of exposure.
Dry sanding, dry scraping, removing paint by torching and burning, the use of heat guns
over 1100°F, and machine-sanding or grinding without a HEPA filtered
dust collection system or a HEPA-filtered vacuum are all prohibited by
the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) as methods of removing lead-based-paint. HUD prohibits these
methods because they have been proven to create significant levels of
lead dust during remodeling, renovation and painting. The use of these
methods should be avoided because they significantly increase the chance
to become lead poisoned.
A man wearing coveralls while removing lead paint.
Paint strippers
are also often used to remove lead-based-paint from walls. There are
specialized paint strippers for use with lead paint which render lead
non-hazardous decreasing the risks associated with lead paint removal.
HUD requires a dust test for "clearance" at the end of any
remodeling or repainting job be performed by a third-party professional
who is independent of the entity performing the work.
Lead evaluations of paint are usually performed by a field testing method known as X-Ray fluorescence
(XRF) using equipment which can effectively detect lead. XRF is the
preferred method because it is not destructive and a reading is usually
obtained in about 4–8 seconds with a 95% accuracy at the 2-sigma level.
Instruments of this sort have an inconclusive range, and when a
reading falls in this range (range is different for each instrument and
model), a paint chip may be taken and sent for laboratory analysis.
Testing for lead in dust, water, and air also require laboratory
analysis. Although there are commercially available lead test kits,
they are not reliable and are not authorized by HUD for the use of
determining if a property is lead-based-paint free.
The home's year of construction can be a clue as to the
likelihood that lead is present in its paint. As of April 2011, 87% of
homes built before 1940 contain at least some lead paint, homes built
between 1940 and 1960 have a 69% chance of containing such paint, homes
built between 1960 and 1978 have a 24% chance of containing lead paint,
while homes built after 1978 are unlikely to have lead-based paint.
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of
Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard Control performs regular studies of
housing-based health hazards in the U.S.
