From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Food is any substance
[1] consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of
plant or
animal origin, and contains essential
nutrients, such as
fats,
proteins,
vitamins, or
minerals. The substance is
ingested by an
organism and assimilated by the organism's
cells to provide
energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.
Historically, people secured food through two methods:
hunting and gathering, and
agriculture. Today, most of the
food energy required by the ever
increasing population of the world is supplied by the
food industry.
Food safety and
food security are monitored by agencies like the
International Association for Food Protection,
World Resources Institute,
World Food Programme,
Food and Agriculture Organization, and
International Food Information Council. They address issues such as
sustainability,
biological diversity,
climate change,
nutritional economics,
population growth,
water supply, and
access to food.
The
right to food is a
human right derived from the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (
ICESCR), recognizing the "right to an adequate standard of living, including adequate food," as well as the "fundamental right to be free from hunger."
Food sources
Global average daily
calorie consumption in 1995
Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even animals that are used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants.
Cereal grain is a
staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.
Maize,
wheat, and
rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.
[2] Most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock.
Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible
fungi, especially
mushrooms. Fungi and ambient
bacteria are used in the preparation of
fermented and
pickled foods like
leavened bread,
alcoholic drinks,
cheese,
pickles,
kombucha, and
yogurt. Another example is
blue-green algae such as
Spirulina.
[3] Inorganic substances such as
salt,
baking soda and
cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient.
Plants
Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food. Many of these plant species have several distinct
cultivars.
[4]
Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as
Omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include
cereals (
maize,
wheat,
rice,
et cetera),
legumes (
beans,
peas,
lentils,
et cetera), and
nuts.
Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils -
sunflower,
flaxseed,
rapeseed (including
canola oil),
sesame,
et cetera.
[5]
Seeds are typically high in
unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a
health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a
lemon, pose a choking hazard, while seeds from
cherries and
apples contain
cyanide which could be poisonous only if consumed in large volumes.
[6]
Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have
coevolved such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food source to the latter, because animals that eat the fruits may
excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as
tomatoes,
pumpkins, and
eggplants, are eaten as vegetables.
[7] (For more information, see
list of fruits.)
Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include
root vegetables (
potatoes and
carrots), bulbs (
onion family),
leaf vegetables (
spinach and
lettuce),
stem vegetables (
bamboo shoots and
asparagus), and
inflorescence vegetables (
globe artichokes and
broccoli and other vegetables such as
cabbage or
cauliflower).
[8]
Animals
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce.
Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from
muscle systems or from
organs.
Food products produced by animals include
milk produced by
mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into
dairy products (cheese,
butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay
eggs, which are often eaten, and
bees produce
honey, a reduced
nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures
consume blood, sometimes in the form of
blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a
cured,
salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use
blood in stews such as
jugged hare.
[9]
Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons.
Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees.
Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain
ingredients from an animal source.
Production
Most food has always been obtained through
agriculture. With increasing concern over both the methods and products of modern
industrial agriculture, there has been a growing trend toward
sustainable agricultural practices.
This approach, partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages
biodiversity, local self-reliance and
organic farming methods.
[10] Major influences on food production include international organizations (e.g. the
World Trade Organization and
Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy (or law), and war.
[11]
In popular culture, the mass production of food, specifically meats such as
chicken and
beef, has come under fire from various
documentaries, most recently
Food, Inc, documenting the mass slaughter and poor treatment of animals, often for easier revenues from
large corporations. Along with a current trend towards
environmentalism, people in
Western culture have had an increasing trend towards the use of
herbal supplements, foods for a specific group of person (such as dieters, women, or athletes),
functional foods (fortified foods, such as
omega-3 eggs), and a more ethnically diverse diet.
[12]
Several organisations have begun calling for a new kind of agriculture in which
agroecosystems provide food but
also support vital
ecosystem services so that
soil fertility and
biodiversity are maintained rather than compromised. According to the
International Water Management Institute and
UNEP, well-managed agroecosystems not only provide food, fiber and animal products, they also provide services such as
flood mitigation,
groundwater recharge,
erosion control and habitats for plants, birds fish and other animals.
[13]
Taste perception
Animals, specifically humans, have five different types of tastes:
sweet,
sour,
salty,
bitter, and
umami. As animals have
evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy (
sugar and
fats) are the most pleasant to eat while others, such as
bitter, are not enjoyable.
[14] Water, while important for survival, has no taste.
[15] Fats, on the other hand, especially
saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat.
Sweet
Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste,
sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple
sugar such as
glucose or
fructose, or
disaccharides such as
sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose.
[16] Complex carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as
sucralose are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar include
raw sugar, which is known for its amber color, as it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant.
The
stevia plant contains a compound known as
steviol which, when extracted, has 300 times the sweetness of sugar while having minimal impact on blood sugar.
[17]
Sour
Sourness is caused by the taste of
acids, such as
vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include
citrus, specifically
lemons,
limes, and to a lesser degree
oranges. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it is a sign for a food that may have gone
rancid due to bacteria.
[18] Many foods, however, are slightly acidic, and help stimulate the taste buds and enhance flavor.
Salty
Saltiness is the taste of
alkali metal ions such as
sodium and
potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although to eat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are many different types of salt, with each having a different degree of saltiness, including
sea salt,
fleur de sel,
kosher salt, mined salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing flavor, its significance is that the body needs and maintains a delicate
electrolyte balance, which is the
kidney's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning
iodine has been added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes
thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably
soups or packaged
broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically speaking, salt has been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion, thus working as a preservative. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.
[19]
Bitter
Bitterness is a sensation often considered unpleasant characterized by having a sharp, pungent taste. Dark, unsweetened
chocolate,
caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter.
Umami
Also named as Savoury.
Umami, the
Japanese word for delicious, is the least known in Western popular culture but has a long tradition in Asian cuisine. Umami is the taste of
glutamates, especially
monosodium glutamate (MSG).
[16] It is characterized as savory, meaty, and rich in flavor.
Salmon and
mushrooms are foods high in umami. Meat and other animal byproducts are described as having this taste.
[citation needed]
Cuisine
Many cultures have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of
cooking traditions using various spices or a combination of flavors unique to that culture, which evolves over time. Other differences include preferences (hot or cold, spicy, etc.) and practices, the study of which is known as
gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods, and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by way of food, not just by consumption. Some popular types of ethnic foods include
Italian,
French,
Japanese,
Chinese,
American,
Cajun,
Thai, African, and
Indian cuisine.
[citation needed]
Various cultures throughout the world study the dietary analysis of food
habits. While
evolutionarily speaking, as opposed to culturally, humans are
omnivores, religion and social constructs such as
morality,
activism, or
environmentalism will often affect which foods they will consume. Food is eaten and typically enjoyed through the sense of
taste, the perception of flavor from eating and drinking. Certain tastes are more enjoyable than others, for evolutionary purposes.
Presentation
Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to consume foods. A common saying is that people "eat with their eyes". Food presented in a clean and appetizing way will encourage a good flavor, even if unsatisfactory.
[20][21]
Contrast in texture
Texture plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of eating foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy in an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of eating it. Common examples include adding
granola to
yogurt, adding
croutons to a
salad or
soup, and toasting bread to enhance its crunchiness for a smooth topping, such as jam or butter.
[22]
Contrast in taste
Another universal phenomenon regarding food is the appeal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example, such opposite flavors as
sweetness and
saltiness tend to go well together, as in
kettle corn and
nuts.
Food preparation
While many foods can be eaten raw, many also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety,
palatability,
texture, or
flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling,
pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a
kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the
taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to
preserve the food; others may be involved in cultural identity. A
meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.
[23]
A refrigerator helps to keep foods fresh.
Animal preparation
The preparation of animal-based food usually involves
slaughter,
evisceration, hanging, portioning, and
rendering.
In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home in
slaughterhouses, which are used to process animals en masse for meat production. Many countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example, the
United States has established the
Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as
kosher,
shechita, and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of
kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.
[24]
On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts, and pre-wrap them for commercial sale or wrap them to order in butcher paper. In addition, fish and
seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger. However fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality.
[25]
Cooking
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as
culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement, and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result.
Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions,
tools, and the skill of the individual cook.
[26] The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, and religious considerations that affect it.
[27]
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavor,
texture, appearance, and nutritional properties.
[28] Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at
Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.
[29] Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of
pottery.
[30]
Cooking equipment
A traditional
asado (barbecue)
There are many different types of equipment used for cooking.
Ovens are mostly hollow devices that get very hot (up to 500 °F) and are used for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of ovens; for example, Indian culture uses a
Tandoor oven, which is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature.
[31] Western kitchens use variable temperature
convection ovens, conventional ovens,
toaster ovens, or non-radiant heat ovens like the
microwave oven. Classic Italian cuisine includes the use of a brick oven containing burning wood. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired,
gas, electric, or oil-fired.
[32]
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. Cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat source, such as a
sauté pan, sauce pot,
frying pan, or
pressure cooker. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as
steaming,
simmering,
boiling, and
poaching for moist methods, while the dry methods include
sautéing,
pan frying, and
deep-frying.
[33]
In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A
grill operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open pit barbecue in the American south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill fueled by wood, liquid propane, or charcoal along with soaked wood chips for smoking.
[34] A
Mexican style of barbecue is called
barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats such as whole sheep over an open fire. In
Argentina, an
asado (Spanish for "grilled") is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on which a whole animal or smaller cuts are grilled.
[35]
Raw food preparation
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state.
Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines.
Sashimi in
Japanese cuisine consists of raw sliced
fish or other meat, and
sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood.
Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various ingredients and served with
baguettes,
brioche, or
frites.
[36] In Italy,
carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced raw
beef, drizzled with a
vinaigrette made with olive oil.
[37] The health food movement known as
raw foodism promotes a mostly
vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables, and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation that do not heat the food above 118 °F (47.8 °C).
[38] An example of a raw meat dish is
ceviche, a Latin American dish made with raw meat that is "cooked" from the highly acidic citric juice from lemons and limes along with other aromatics such as garlic.
Restaurants
Allyn House restaurant menu (March 5, 1859)
Restaurants employ trained
chefs who prepare food, and trained waitstaff to serve the customers. The term
restaurant is credited to the
French from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the
bouillons that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation may have existed during the age of the city of
Pompeii, and urban sales of prepared foods may have existed in
China during the
Song Dynasty. The
coffee shops or
cafés of 17th century
Europe may also be considered an early version of the restaurant.
[39] In 2005, the population of the United States spent $496 billion for out-of-home
dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining were as follows: 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (
fast food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and
vending machines, 4.7% in hotels and motels, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in others, which includes military bases.
[40]
Food manufacturing
Packaged household food items
Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a
butcher preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international
food industry. Early food processing techniques were limited by available food preservation, packaging, and transportation. This mainly involved
salting,
curing, curdling,
drying,
pickling,
fermenting, and
smoking.
[41] Food manufacturing arose during the
industrial revolution in the 19th century.
[42] This development took advantage of new
mass markets and emerging new technology, such as
milling, preservation,
packaging and
labeling, and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time-saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ domestic servants.
[43]
At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food
brands. There also exists a wide array of small local or national food processing companies.
[44] Advanced technologies have also come to change food manufacture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated
processing and packaging methods, and
logistics and
distribution advances can enhance product quality, improve
food safety, and reduce costs.
[43]
Commercial trade
International food imports and exports
The
World Bank reported that the European Union was the top food importer in 2005, followed at a distance by the USA and Japan.
Britain's need for food was especially well illustrated in
World War II. Despite the implementation of
food rationing, Britain remained dependent on food imports and the result was a long term engagement in the
Battle of the Atlantic.
Food is traded and marketed on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season.
[45] Between 1961 and 1999, there was a 400% increase in worldwide food exports.
[46] Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.
[47]
In 1994, over 100 countries became signatories to the
Uruguay Round of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in
trade liberalization. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, underpinned by the
WTO enforcement of
agricultural subsidy,
tariffs, import
quotas, and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.
[48] Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the
Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade.
[49]
Marketing and retailing
Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate".
[50] The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one
can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans.
[51] The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States.
In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day into the local village marketplace. Here food was sold to
grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers.
[27][43] With the onset of industrialization and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.
[27][52]
In the 20th century,
supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a
self service approach to shopping using
shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through
economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.
[53]
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large
companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to
advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations.
[54]
Prices
It was reported on March 24, 2008, that consumers worldwide faced rising food prices.
[55] Reasons for this development include changes in the weather and dramatic changes in the
global economy, including higher
oil prices, lower food reserves, and growing consumer demand in
China and
India.
[55] In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize.
[55] Farmers will grow more grain for both
fuel and food and eventually bring prices down.
[55]
Already this is happening with
wheat,
[56][57] with more
crops to be planted in the
United States,
Canada, and
Europe in 2009. However, the
Food and Agriculture Organization projects that consumers still have to deal with more expensive food until at least 2018.
[55]
Food, meat, dairy, cereals, vegetable oil, and sugar price indices, deflated using the World Bank Manufactures Unit Value Index (MUV).
[58]
It is rare for the spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices rose 4% in the United States in 2007, the highest increase since 1990, and are expected to climb as much again in 2008. As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of
pork jumped 58% in 2007. In the 1980s and 1990s, farm subsidies and support programs allowed major grain exporting countries to hold large surpluses, which could be tapped during food shortages to keep prices down. However, new trade policies have made agricultural production much more responsive to market demands, putting global food reserves at their lowest since 1983.
[55]
Food prices are rising, wealthier Asian consumers are westernizing their diets, and farmers and nations of the third world are struggling to keep up the pace. The past five years have seen rapid growth in the contribution of Asian nations to the global fluid and powdered milk manufacturing industry, which in 2008 accounted for more than 30% of production, while China alone accounts for more than 10% of both production and consumption in the global fruit and vegetable processing and preserving industry. The trend is similarly evident in industries such as soft drink and bottled water manufacturing, as well as global cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery manufacturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and 10.0% respectively during 2008 in response to soaring demand in Chinese and Southeast Asian markets.
[59]
Rising food prices over recent years have been linked with social unrest around the world, including rioting in
Bangladesh and
Mexico,
[60] and the
Arab Spring.
[citation needed]
In 2013
Overseas Development Institute researchers showed that
rice has more than doubled in price since 2000, rising by 120% in real terms. This was as a result of shifts in trade policy and restocking by major producers. More fundamental drivers of increased prices are the higher costs of fertiliser, diesel and labour. Parts of Asia see rural wages rise with potential large benefits for the 1.3 billion (2008 estimate) of Asia's poor in reducing the poverty they face. However, this negatively impacts more vulnerable groups who don't share in the economic boom, especially in Asian and African coastal cities. The researchers said the threat means social-protection policies are needed to guard against price shocks. The research proposed that in the longer run, the rises present opportunities to export for Western African farmers with high potential for rice production to replace imports with domestic production.
[61]
As investment
Institutions such as
hedge funds,
pension funds and
investment banks like
Barclays Capital,
Goldman Sachs and
Morgan Stanley[60] have been instrumental in pushing up prices in the last five years, with investment in food
commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn (£41bn to £79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-year highs. This has caused price fluctuations which are not strongly related to the actual supply of food, according to the United Nations.
[60] Financial institutions now make up 61% of all investment in
wheat futures. According to
Olivier De Schutter, the UN special rapporteur on food, there was a rush by institutions to enter the food market following
George W Bush's
Commodities Futures Modernization Act of 2000.
[60] De Schutter told the Independent in March 2012: "What we are seeing now is that these financial markets have developed massively with the arrival of these new financial investors, who are purely interested in the short-term monetary gain and are not really interested in the physical thing – they never actually buy the ton of wheat or
maize; they only buy a promise to buy or to sell.
The result of this financialisation of the commodities market is that the prices of the products respond increasingly to a purely speculative logic. This explains why in very short periods of time we see prices spiking or bubbles exploding, because prices are less and less determined by the real match between supply and demand."
[60] In 2011, 450 economists from around the world called on the
G20 to regulate the commodities market more.
[60]
Some experts have said that speculation has merely aggravated other factors, such as
climate change, competition with
bio-fuels and overall rising demand.
[60] However, some such as
Jayati Ghosh, professor of economics at
Jawaharlal Nehru University in
New Delhi, have pointed out that prices have increased irrespective of supply and demand issues: Ghosh points to world wheat prices, which doubled in the period from June to December 2010, despite there being no fall in global supply.
[60]
Famine and hunger
Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately
starvation. This is often connected with
famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality.
Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.
[11]
Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes.
[62] Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in
Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using
famine scales.
[63]
Food aid
Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required.
[64]
Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence can develop.
[65] Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination country, a strategy known as
food politics. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of donor countries.
[66] International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are often coordinated by the
World Food Programme.
[67]
Safety
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (
HACCP) Flowchart
Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning", is caused by
bacteria,
toxins,
viruses,
parasites, and
prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version.
[68] The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as "foreign bodies") during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution, or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
[68]
Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease since as early as Hippocrates.
[69] The sale of
rancid, contaminated, or adulterated food was commonplace until the introduction of
hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat, and other
microbiological studies by scientists such as
Louis Pasteur, contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of
Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern
food storage and
food preservation methods.
[70] In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (
HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks.
[71]
Recommended measures for ensuring food safety include maintaining a clean preparation area with foods of different types kept separate, ensuring an adequate cooking temperature, and refrigerating foods promptly after cooking.
[72]
Foods that spoil easily, such as
meats,
dairy, and
seafood, must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are prepared. As such, the general rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as
Salmonella or
E. coli.
[73]
Allergies
Some people have
allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's
immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy.
[74] The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals.
Common food allergens are
gluten,
corn,
shellfish (mollusks),
peanuts, and
soy.
[74] Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as
diarrhea,
rashes, bloating,
vomiting, and
regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the
allergen.
[74]
Rarely, food allergies can lead to a
medical emergency, such as
anaphylactic shock,
hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is peanut, although
latex products can induce similar reactions.
[74] Initial treatment is with
epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an
Epi-pen or
Twinject.
[75][76]
Other health issues
Human diet was estimated to cause perhaps around 35% of
cancers in a human epidemiological analysis by
Richard Doll and
Richard Peto in 1981.
[77] These cancer may be caused by
carcinogens that are present in food naturally or as contaminants. Food contaminated with fungal growth may contain
mycotoxins such as
aflatoxins which may be found in contaminated corn and peanuts. Other carcinogens identified in food include
heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons in charred meat and smoked fish, and
nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in
cured meat such as
bacon.
[78]
Anticarcinogens that may help prevent cancer can also be found in many food especially fruits and vegetable.
Antioxidants are important groups of compounds that may help remove potentially harmful chemicals. It is however often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase or decrease cancer risk since many food, such as beef steak and broccoli, contain low concentrations of both carcinogens and anticarcinogens.
[78]
Diet
Changes of Food Supply (by energy)
[79][80]
Other area (Yr 2010)
[81] * Africa, sub-Sahara - 2170 kcal/capita/day * N.E. and N. Africa - 3120 kcal/capita/day * South Asia - 2450 kcal/capita/day * East Asia - 3040 kcal/capita/day * Latin America / Caribbean - 2950 kcal/capita/day * Developed countries - 3470 kcal/capita/day
Cultural and religious diets
Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat.
[82] Many cultures hold some food preferences and some food
taboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only
kosher foods are permitted by
Judaism,
halal foods by
Islam, and in
Hinduism beef is restricted.
[83] In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's
cuisine.
Diet deficiencies
Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of
adipose tissue, known as body fat.
[84]
Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases that can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at risk for developing,
iodine deficiency.
[85] It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to
vitamin A deficiency.
[86] Vitamin C deficiency results in
scurvy.
[87] Calcium,
Vitamin D, and
phosphorus are inter-related; the consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
Kwashiorkor and
marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.
[88]
Moral, ethical, and health-conscious diets
Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance,
vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a
healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and
antioxidants.
[89] Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing
heart disease,
diabetes, and many other diseases.
[90] More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from
genetically modified food.
[91] Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (
grains) on
animal welfare, human health, and the
environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a movement with a preference for
organic and
local food.
[92]
Nutrition and dietary problems
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from
starvation or
malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses, and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to various health problems such as
scurvy,
obesity, or
osteoporosis,
diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the
minerals and
vitamins. Additionally, food contains water and
dietary fiber.
As previously discussed, the body is designed by
natural selection to enjoy sweet and fattening foods for evolutionary diets, ideal for
hunters and gatherers. Thus, sweet and fattening foods in nature are typically rare and are very pleasurable to eat. In modern times, with
advanced technology, enjoyable foods are easily available to consumers. Unfortunately, this promotes
obesity in adults and children alike.
Legal definition
Some countries list a legal definition of food, often referring them with the word
foodstuff. These countries list food as any item that is to be processed, partially processed, or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items included as food include any substance intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by
humans. In addition to these foodstuffs, drink,
chewing gum, water, or other items processed into said food items are part of the legal definition of food. Items not included in the legal definition of food include
animal feed, live animals (unless being prepared for sale in a market), plants prior to harvesting, medicinal products,
cosmetics,
tobacco and tobacco products,
narcotic or
psychotropic substances, and residues and contaminants.
[93]
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