From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Environmentalism or
environmental rights is a broad
philosophy,
ideology, and
social movement regarding concerns for
environmental protection and improvement of the health of the
environment,
particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the
impact of changes to the environment on humans, animals, plants and
non-living matter. While environmentalism focuses more on the
environmental and nature-related aspects of
green ideology and politics,
ecologism combines the ideology of
social ecology
and environmentalism. Ecologism is more commonly used in continental
European languages while ‘environmentalism’ is more commonly used in
English but the words have slightly different connotations.
Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and/or
improvement of the natural environment, and may be referred to as a
movement to control
pollution or protect plant and animal diversity.
[1] For this reason, concepts such as a
land ethic,
environmental ethics,
biodiversity,
ecology, and the
biophilia hypothesis figure predominantly.
At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations
between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in
such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of
sustainability.
The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and
there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed
in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often
represented by the color
green,
[2] but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries for the tactic known as
greenwashing.
Environmentalism is opposed by
anti-environmentalism,
which says that the Earth is less fragile than some environmentalists
maintain, and portrays environmentalism as overreacting to the human
contribution to
climate change or opposing human advancement.
[3]
Definitions
Environmentalism denotes a
social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and
ecosystems. The word was first coined in 1922.
[citation needed]
An
environmentalist
is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the
sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy
or individual behavior. This may include supporting practices such as
informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in
renewable resources, improved efficiencies in the materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as
Ecological economics and renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life.
In various ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and
environmental organizations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.
[4]
In general terms, environmentalists advocate the
sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the
natural environment
through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its
recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is
centered around
ecology,
health, and
human rights.
History
A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms,
in different parts of the world, throughout history. For example, in
Europe,
King Edward I of England banned the burning of
sea-coal by proclamation in
London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem.
[5][6]
The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it
was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the
wheelbarrow.
Earlier in the
Middle East, the
Caliph Abu Bakr
in the 630s commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn
them with fire," and "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your
food."
[7] Arabic medical treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealing with environmentalism and
environmental science, including pollution, were written by
Al-Kindi,
Qusta ibn Luqa,
Al-Razi,
Ibn Al-Jazzar,
al-Tamimi,
al-Masihi,
Avicenna,
Ali ibn Ridwan,
Ibn Jumay,
Isaac Israeli ben Solomon,
Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and
Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution,
water pollution,
soil contamination,
municipal solid waste mishandling, and
environmental impact assessments of certain localities.
[8]
Early environmental legislation
Levels of air pollution rose during the
Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.
At the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes (H. G. Wells 1918).[9]
The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of
smoke pollution in the
atmosphere during the
Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in
coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of
air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial
chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.
[10] The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's
Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (
gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the
Leblanc process, used to produce
soda ash.
An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this
pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually
expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major
heavy industries that emitted
smoke, grit, dust and fumes under supervision.
In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after
1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and
pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve
reforms.
[11] Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The
Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir
William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the
Public Health Act 1875
required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It
also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts
of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with
the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash
and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their
own regulations.
It was, however, only under the impetus of the
Great Smog of 1952 in London, which almost brought the city to a standstill and may have caused upward of 6,000 deaths that the
Clean Air Act 1956
was passed and pollution in the city was finally brought to an end.
Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal
fires with alternatives (such as installing gas fires), or for those who
preferred, to burn coke instead (a byproduct of town gas production)
which produces minimal smoke. 'Smoke control areas' were introduced in
some towns and cities where only smokeless fuels could be burnt and
power stations were relocated away from cities. The act formed an
important impetus to modern environmentalism, and caused a rethinking of
the dangers of environmental degradation to people's quality of life.
[12]
The late 19th century also saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws. The zoologist
Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the
Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals
between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals
from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the
Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.
[13][14]
First environmental movements
Early interest in the environment was a feature of the
Romantic movement in the early 19th century. The poet
William Wordsworth travelled extensively in the
Lake District
and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man
has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to
enjoy".
[15]
John Ruskin an influential thinker who articulated the Romantic ideal of environmental protection and conservation.
Systematic efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the
late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the
1870s, which was a reaction to
industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and
water pollution. Starting with the formation of the
Commons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation.
Robert Hunter, solicitor for the society, worked with
Hardwicke Rawnsley,
Octavia Hill, and
John Ruskin
to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways
to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoilt
valleys of
Newlands and
Ennerdale. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District).
[16]
In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to
coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the
"National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was
formally inaugurated in 1894.
[17]
The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National
Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation.
[18] and the bill was passed in August 1907.
[19]
An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic
ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as
John Ruskin,
William Morris,
George Bernard Shaw and
Edward Carpenter, who were all against
consumerism,
pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.
[20]
The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial
towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and
housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed the rural life as a
mythical
Utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a
small
piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will
have no steam engines upon it . . . we will have plenty of flowers and
vegetables . . . we will have some music and poetry; the children will
learn to dance to it and sing it.[21]
Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms
were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of
manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically
revived, including the
Morris dance and the
maypole.
[22]
These ideas also inspired various environmental groups in the UK, such as the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, established in 1889 by
Emily Williamson as a
protest group to campaign for greater protection for the indigenous birds of the
island.
[23][24]
The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes
as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the
ornithologist Professor
Alfred Newton. By 1900, public support for the organisation had grown, and it had over 25,000 members. The
Garden city movement incorporated many environmental concerns into its
urban planning manifesto; the
Socialist League and
The Clarion movement also began to advocate measures of
nature conservation.
[25]
The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as
John Muir and
Henry David Thoreau
making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in
peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to
nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book
Walden,
which argues that people should become intimately close with nature.
Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after
spending time hiking in
Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form
Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the
Sierra Club
in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an
inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern
environmentalism.
In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in
popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save
some wildlife, particularly the
American bison. The death of the last
passenger pigeon
as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the
minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. In 1916 the
National Park Service was founded by US President
Woodrow Wilson.
The
Forestry Commission was set up in 1919 in Britain to increase the amount of woodland in Britain by buying land for
afforestation and
reforestation. The commission was also tasked with promoting forestry and the production of timber for trade.
[26]
During the 1920s the Commission focused on acquiring land to begin
planting out new forests; much of the land was previously used for
agricultural purposes. By 1939 the Forestry Commission was the largest
landowner in Britain.
[27]
During the 1930s the Nazis had elements that were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife,
[28] and took several measures to ensure their protection.
[29] In 1933 the government created a stringent animal-protection law and in 1934,
Das Reichsjagdgesetz (The Reich Hunting Law) was enacted which limited hunting.
[30][31] Several Nazis were environmentalists (notably
Rudolf Hess), and species protection and
animal welfare were significant issues in the regime.
[29] In 1935, the regime enacted the "Reich Nature Protection Act" (
Reichsnaturschutzgesetz). The concept of the
Dauerwald (best translated as the "perpetual forest") which included concepts such as
forest management and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curb
air pollution.
[32]
In 1949,
A Sand County Almanac by
Aldo Leopold
was published. It explained Leopold's belief that humankind should have
moral respect for the environment and that it is unethical to harm it.
The book is sometimes called the most influential book on conservation.
Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and beyond, photography was used
to enhance public awareness of the need for protecting land and
recruiting members to environmental organizations.
David Brower,
Ansel Adams and
Nancy Newhall
created the Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series, which helped raise
public environmental awareness and brought a rapidly increasing flood of
new members to the Sierra Club and to the environmental movement in
general. "This Is Dinosaur" edited by
Wallace Stegner with photographs by
Martin Litton and
Philip Hyde prevented the building of dams within
Dinosaur National Monument
by becoming part of a new kind of activism called environmentalism that
combined the conservationist ideals of Thoreau, Leopold and Muir with
hard-hitting advertising, lobbying, book distribution, letter writing
campaigns, and more. The powerful use of photography in addition to the
written word for conservation dated back to the creation of
Yosemite National Park,
when photographs persuaded Abraham Lincoln to preserve the beautiful
glacier carved landscape for all time. The Sierra Club Exhibit Format
Series galvanized public opposition to building dams in the
Grand Canyon and protected many other national treasures. The Sierra Club often led a coalition of many environmental groups including the
Wilderness Society
and many others. After a focus on preserving wilderness in the 1950s
and 1960s, the Sierra Club and other groups broadened their focus to
include such issues as air and water pollution, population concern, and
curbing the exploitation of natural resources.
Post-war expansion
In 1962,
Silent Spring by American biologist
Rachel Carson was published. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of
DDT
in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of
chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects
on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other
pesticides may cause
cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds.
[33] The resulting public concern led to the creation of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in
disease vector
control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains
controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness
of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the
environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in
problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental
interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably
Greenpeace and
Friends of the Earth (US), as well as notable local organizations such as the
Wyoming Outdoor Council, which was founded in 1967.
In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the
counterculture movement.
[34]
The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the
United Tasmania Group Tasmania, Australia and the
Values Party of
New Zealand.
[35][36] The first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the
Swiss canton of
Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the
Ecology Party, and then the
Green Party.
Protection of the environment also became important in the
developing world; the
Chipko movement was formed in India under the influence of
Mohandas Gandhi and they set up peaceful resistance to
deforestation
by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their
peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy"
were very influential.
Another milestone in the movement was the creation of an
Earth Day. Earth Day was first observed in
San Francisco
and other cities on March 21, 1970, the first day of spring. It was
created to give awareness to environmental issues. On March 21, 1971,
United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of a
spaceship Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the
ecosystem services
the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and
with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the
Earth Day Network,
[37] and is celebrated in more than 175 countries every year.
[38]
The UN's first major conference on international environmental issues, the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
(also known as the Stockholm Conference), was held on June 5–16, 1972.
It marked a turning point in the development of international
environmental politics.
[39]
By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The
Back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with
anti-Vietnam War
sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside
normal society and started to take on some of the more radical
environmental theories such as
deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the
Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of
CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States
Clean Air Act[40] and
Clean Water Act.
[41]
In 1979,
James Lovelock, a British scientist, published
Gaia: A new look at life on Earth, which put forth the
Gaia hypothesis; it proposes that life on
earth can be understood as a single organism. This became an important part of the
Deep Green
ideology. Throughout the rest of the history of environmentalism there
has been debate and argument between more radical followers of this Deep
Green ideology and more mainstream environmentalists.
21st century and beyond
Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as
global warming,
overpopulation and
genetic engineering.
Research demonstrates a precipitous decline in the US public's interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern.
[42]
Americans are less likely be actively participating in an environmental
movement or organization and more likely to identify as "unsympathetic"
to an environmental movement than in 2000.
[43] This is likely a lingering factor of the
Great Recession
in 2008. Since 2005, the percentage of Americans agreeing that the
environment should be given priority over economic growth has dropped 10
points, in contrast, those feeling that growth should be given priority
"even if the environment suffers to some extent" has risen 12 percent.
[43] These numbers point to the growing complexity of environmentalism and its relationship to economics.
[citation needed]
New forms of ecoactivism
Tree sitting
is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an
attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an
area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter being
Julia Butterfly Hill, who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest.
[44]
Sit-in is a form of activism where one or any number of people occupy a place as a form of protest.
[citation needed]
The tactic can be used to encourage social change, such as the
Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial
segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in the
Dakota Access Pipeline Protest.
[45]
Environmental movement
The
environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the
conservation and
green movements) is a diverse scientific,
social, and
political movement.
Though the movement is represented by a range of organizations, because
of the inclusion of environmentalism in the classroom curriculum,
[46][47] the environmental movement has a younger demographic than is common in other social movements (see
green seniors).
Environmentalism as a movement covers broad areas of institutional
oppression, including for example: consumption of ecosystems and natural
resources into waste, dumping waste into disadvantaged communities, air
pollution, water pollution, weak infrastructure, exposure of organic
life to toxins, mono-culture, anti-polythene drive (jhola movement) and
various other focuses. Because of these divisions, the environmental
movement can be categorized into these primary focuses:
environmental science, environmental activism, environmental advocacy, and
environmental justice.
[48]
Free market environmentalism
Free market environmentalism is a theory that argues that the
free market,
property rights, and
tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health and
sustainability
of the environment. It considers environmental stewardship to be
natural, as well as the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors
through individual and
class action.
Evangelical environmentalism
Evangelical environmentalism is an environmental movement in the United States of America in which some
Evangelicals have emphasized
biblical
mandates concerning humanity's role as steward and subsequent
responsibility for the caretaking of Creation. While the movement has
focused on different environmental issues, it is best known for its
focus of addressing climate action from a biblically grounded
theological
perspective. Many mainstream environmentalists detest this movement, as
they are generally opposed to the barbaric and cruel acts which were
historically imposed by Christian institutions.
Preservation and conservation
Environmental preservation in the United States and other parts of
the world, including Australia, is viewed as the setting aside of
natural resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by
certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing,
often to replace them with new human activities such as tourism and
recreation.
[49] Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources.
Organizations and conferences
Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private (
NGO).
Environmentalist activity exists in almost every country. Moreover,
groups dedicated to community development and social justice also focus
on environmental concerns.
Some US environmental organizations, among them the
Natural Resources Defense Council and the
Environmental Defense Fund, specialize in bringing lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly useful in that country). Other groups, such as the US-based
National Wildlife Federation,
the Nature Conservancy, and
The Wilderness Society, and global groups like the
World Wide Fund for Nature and
Friends of the Earth, disseminate information, participate in
public hearings,
lobby,
stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for
preservation. Statewide nonprofit organizations such as the
Wyoming Outdoor Council often collaborate with these national organizations and employ similar strategies. Smaller groups, including
Wildlife Conservation International, conduct research on
endangered species and
ecosystems. More radical organizations, such as
Greenpeace,
Earth First!, and the
Earth Liberation Front,
have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally
harmful. While Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a
means of bearing witness to environmental wrongs and bringing issues
into the public realm for debate, the underground
Earth Liberation Front
engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of
caged or penned animals, and other criminal acts. Such tactics are
regarded as unusual within the movement, however.
On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed
UNEP (
United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-up
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the
Commission for Environmental Cooperation (as part of
NAFTA), the
European Environment Agency (EEA), and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Environmental protests
Notable environmental protests and campaigns include:
Environmentalists
Notable advocates for
environmental protection and
sustainability include:
- Edward Abbey (author)
- David Attenborough (broadcaster, naturalist)
- John James Audubon (naturalist)
- Judi Bari (environmentalist)
- Frances Beinecke (environmentalist and former president of the Natural Resources Defense Council)
- David Bellamy (botanist)
- Wendell Berry (farmer, philosopher)
- Murray Bookchin (anarchist, philosopher, social ecologist)
- David Brower (writer, activist)
- Lester Brown (environmental analyst, author)
- Carol Browner (lawyer and activist)
- Kevin Buzzacott (Aboriginal activist)
- Helen Caldicott (medical doctor)
- Rachel Carson (biologist, writer)
- Majora Carter (urban revitalization strategist)
- Sangduen Chailert (conservationist and founder of Elephant Nature Park)
- Prince Charles (British Royal Family member)
- Barry Commoner (biologist, politician)
- Jacques-Yves Cousteau (explorer, ecologist)
- Herman Daly (ecological economist and steady-state theorist)
- Peter Dauvergne (political scientist)
- Laurie David (activist and producer)
- Marina DeBris (environmental artist)
- Leonardo DiCaprio (actor and environmentalist)[50]
- Sylvia Earle (marine biologist)
- Elizabeth Economy (China environment expert)
- Paul R. Ehrlich (population biologist)
- Hans-Josef Fell (German Green Party member)
- Jane Fonda (actor)
- Mizuho Fukushima (politician, activist)
- Peter Garrett (musician, politician)
- Jane Goodall (primatologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace)
- Lois Gibbs (Founder of the Center for Health, Environment and Justice)
- Al Gore (former Vice President of the United States)
- Daryl Hannah (activist)
- James Hansen (scientist)
- Garrett Hardin (ecologist, ecophilosopher)
- Denis Hayes (environmentalist and solar power advocate)
- Julia Butterfly Hill (activist)
- Tetsunari Iida (sustainable energy advocate)
- Lisa P. Jackson (chemical engineer and former administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency)
- Aldo Leopold (ecologist)
- A. Carl Leopold (plant physiologist)
- James Lovelock (scientist)
- Amory Lovins (energy policy analyst)
- Hunter Lovins (environmentalist)
- Caroline Lucas (politician)
- Wangari Maathai (activist and Nobel laureate)
- Jarid Manos (CEO of the Great Plains Restoration Council)
- Bill McKibben (writer, activist)
- David McTaggart (activist)
- Chico Mendes (activist)
- George Monbiot (journalist)
- John Muir (naturalist, activist)
- Ralph Nader (activist)
- Gaylord Nelson (politician)
- Alan Pears (environmental consultant and energy efficiency pioneer)
- Gifford Pinchot (first chief of the USFS)
- Jonathon Porritt (politician)
- John Wesley Powell (second director of the USGS)
- Barbara Pyle (documentarian and executive producer of Captain Planet and the Planeteers)
- Phil Radford (environmental, clean energy and democracy advocate, Greenpeace Executive Director)
- Bonnie Raitt (musician)
- Theodore Roosevelt (former President of the United States)
- Habiba Sarobi (politician and activist)
- E. F. Schumacher (author of Small is Beautiful)
- Simran Sethi (environmental journalist)
- Vandana Shiva (ecofeminist and activist)
- Marina Silva (politician and activist)
- Alicia Silverstone (activist and author of The Kind Diet)
- Swami Sundaranand (Yogi, photographer, and mountaineer)
- Cass Sunstein (environmental lawyer)
- David Suzuki (scientist, broadcaster)
- Henry David Thoreau (writer, philosopher)
- Stewart Udall (former United States Secretary of the Interior)
- Jo Valentine (politician and activist)
- Dominique Voynet (politician and environmentalist)
- Alice Waters (activist and restaurateur)
- Gabriel Willow (environmental educator, naturalist)
- Howard Zahniser (author of the 1964 Wilderness Act)
Assassinations
Every year, more than 100 environmental activists are murdered throughout the world.
[51] 116 environmental activists were
assassinated in 2014.
[52] More than two environmentalists were assassinated every week in 2014 and three every week in 2015.
[53] [54]185 environmental activists were assassinated in 2015.
[55] More than 200 environmental activists were assassinated worldwide between 2016 and 2018.
[56]
In popular culture
- The popular media have been used to convey conservation messages in the U.S. For instance, the U.S. Forest Service created Smokey the Bear
in 1944; he appeared in countless posters, radio and television
programs, movies, press releases, and other guises to warn about forest
fires.[57] The comic strip Mark Trail, by environmentalist Ed Dodd, began in 1946; it still appears weekly in 175 newspapers. Another example is the children's animated show Captain Planet and the Planeteers, created by Ted Turner and Barbara Pyle
in 1989 to inform children about environmental issues. The show aired
for six seasons and 113 episodes, in 100 countries worldwide from 1990
to 1996.[58]
- In 1974, Spokane, State of Washington, became the smallest city ever to host a World's Fair. From Saturday, May 4, to Sunday, November 3, 1974, Spokane hosted Expo 74, the first world's fair to focus on the environment. The theme of Expo 74 was "Celebrating Tomorrow's Fresh New Environment."
- FernGully: The Last Rainforest
is an animated motion picture released in 1992, which focuses
exclusively on the environment. The movie is based on a book under the
same title by Diana Young. In 1998, a sequel, FernGully 2: The Magical Rescue, was introduced.
- Miss Earth is one of the three largest international beauty pageants. (The other two are Miss Universe and Miss World.)
Of these three, Miss Earth is the only beauty pageant that promotes
Environmental Awareness. The reigning titleholders dedicate their year
to promote specific projects and often address issues concerning the
environment and other global issues through school tours, tree planting
activities, street campaigns, coastal clean ups, speaking engagements,
shopping mall tours, media guesting, environmental fair, storytelling
programs, eco-fashion shows, and other environmental activities. The
Miss Earth winner is the spokesperson for the Miss Earth Foundation, the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) and other environmental organizations. The Miss Earth Foundation
also works with the environmental departments and ministries of
participating countries, various private sectors and corporations, as
well as Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF).
- Another area of environmentalism is to use art to raise awareness about misuse of the environment.[59][60][61] One example is trashion, using trash to create clothes, jewelry, and other objects for the home. Marina DeBris is one trashion artist, who focuses on ocean and beach trash to design clothes and for fund raising, education.
An alternative view
Many
environmentalists believe that human interference with 'nature' should
be restricted or minimised as a matter of urgency (for the sake of life,
or the planet, or just for the benefit of the human species),
[62] whereas
environmental skeptics and anti-environmentalists do not believe that there is such a need.
[63][citation needed] One can also regard oneself as an environmentalist and believe that human 'interference' with 'nature' should be
increased.
[64]
Nevertheless, there is a risk that the shift from emotional
environmentalism into the technical management of natural resources and
hazards could decrease the touch of humans with nature, leading to less
concern with environment preservation.
[65]
