LGBT History Month is an annual month-long observance of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender history, and the history of the gay rights and related civil rights movements.
LGBT History Month provides role models, builds community, and
represents a civil rights statement about the contributions of the LGBT
community.
As of 2020, LGBT History Month is a month-long celebration that is
specific to Hungary, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, Brazil, Greenland, and the city of Berlin.
In the United States, Canada, and Australia, it is celebrated in October to coincide with National Coming Out Day on 11 October.
In Hungary and the United Kingdom, it is observed during February; in
the UK this coincides with a major celebration of the 2003 abolition of Section 28. In Berlin, It is known as Queer History Month and is celebrated in June.
National celebrations
Australia
In October 2016, Minus 18 organised the first Australian LGBT History Month in partnership with the Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives, and the Safe Schools Coalition Victoria.
Brazil
Brazil celebrates LGBT History Month.
Canada
Canada celebrates LGBT History Month in October.
Greenland
Greenland celebrates LGBT History Month.
Hungary
LGBT History Month has been celebrated in February since 2013, and the planned 2020 event is the 8th. The program series is coordinated by Háttér Society and Labrisz Lesbian Association,
events are organized in partnership with other LGBT organization,
cultural and academic institutions, professional organizations etc. The
majority of the events take place in Budapest, but a few events are also organized in larger cities all over the country, e.g. in Debrecen, Pécs, Miskolc and Szeged.
In 2013 there were nearly 30 events in the cities of Budapest, Miskolc and Szeged. In 2015 there were 37 events, with some held in Tahitótfalu and Csobánka As of 2019 there were about 40 events for the celebration.
United Kingdom
LGBT History Month was initiated in the UK by Sue Sanders and Paul Patrick as a Schools OUT UK project, which first took place in February 2005. The Month is an annual event in the United Kingdom taking place every February.
The event came in the wake of the abolition of Section 28 in 2003, the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003
as well as the government's proposals to bring in a single equality act
and a public duty, although this, in fact, did not come to fruition
until 2010.
The Month is intended as a means to raise awareness of, and combat prejudice against the LGBT community while celebrating its achievement and diversity and making it more visible.
The first celebration in 2005 saw the organisation of over 150
events around the UK. The second logo for the organisation behind the
month was designed by LGBT typographer Tony Malone in 2006, and was reworked by him in 2007 when it then became the corporate logo for the national committee.
From that point in time, each yearly iteration of the Month
started to receive its own mark designed by students of the University
of the Arts and later by design students at the University of Bedfordshire.
England
The initiative received government backing from the deputy DfES and Equalities Minister Jacqui Smith, although some sections of the press argued against its political correctness, and pointed out that the sexuality of some historical figures is more a matter of speculation than fact. Supporters of the event countered that it is important to challenge heterosexist attitudes in society.
On 5 March 2009, Prime Minister Gordon Brown hosted a reception at Downing Street to mark the Month.
OUTing the Past festival and the annual Alan Horsfall Lecture
OUTing The Past is an annual festival of LGBT history.
In 2015 saw the first edition of OUTing The Past, a festival of LGBT History spearheaded by Dr Jeff Evans. The festival started in three venues in Manchester: the LGBT Foundation, The Central Library and the Peoples History Museum.
Comprising several presentations of diverse history presented by a
mixture of academics, LGBT enthusiasts and activists. Sitting alongside
the popular presentations was an academic conference with the inaugural Allan Horsfall Lecture given by Professor Charles Upchurch of Florida University. This is now a yearly event funded by the Campaign for Homosexual Equality.
Stephen M Hornby was appointed as the first National Playwright in
Residence to LGBT History Month. The first production created as a
result of this was a three part heritage premiere co-written with Ric
Brady and performed across the weekend called "A Very Victorian Scandal"
which dramatised new research about a drag ball in 1880 in Hulme.
The following year the festival expanded to six hubs around
England and the conference had its own slot. The Alan Horsfall lecture
was given by Professor Susan Stryker
of the University of Arizona in 2016. The national heritage premieres
were "Mister Stokes: The Man-Woman of Manchester" written by Abi Hynes,
which told the story of Harry Stokes a Victorian trans pioneer and
"Devils in Human Shape" by Tom Marshman, which dramatized Georgian
sodomy trials in Bristol.
In 2017, there were 18 venues round the country and by now over a hundred presentations on LGBT history had been given. The Alan Horsfall lecture was given by Diana Souhami.
The national heritage premieres were "The Burnley Buggers' Ball" by
Stephen M Hornby, which told the story of the first public meeting to
establish an LGBT Center in the UK in 1971 at Burnley Library, and
"Burnley's Lesbian Liberator" by Abi Hynes which told the story of one
of the first demonstrations in support of a woman sacked for wearing a
Lesbian Liberation badge by the Burnley & Pendle Bus Company in
1978.
2019 there were 18 venues including the first international events in The Republic of Ireland, Sweden, Norway
and New York. The lecture was given by Dr Jeffrey Weeks in Belfast.
The national heritage premiere was "The Adhesion of Love" by Stephen M
Hornby, which toured to a number of venues in the North West of England.
It told the story of a visit by a member of the Eagle Street College to Walt Whitman in 1891.
From 2016, Schools OUT UK has partnered with a several contract
publishers to produce magazines as an Official Guide to LGBT History
Month, putting 35,000 copies of their publication into every secondary
school in the UK, plus community spaces, charities and businesses. The
magazine had introductions from the leaders of all the main political
parties and the Mayor of London. The magazine's Diversity Dashboard runs job adverts and events listings from LGBT-friendly employers and the community.
Scotland
In 2005 and 2006, LGBT History Month was celebrated in Scotland as an LGBT community event, receiving support from LGBT community history projects such as Our Story Scotland and Remember When.
For 2007 and 2008, the Scottish Government provided funding for a post at LGBT Youth Scotland to bring LGBT History Month into the wider community, including schools and youth groups.
In 2020 Scotland's theme was "What have we learned? 20 years since the repeal of Section 28."
LGBT History Month originated in the United States, and was first
celebrated in 1994. It was founded by Missouri high-school history
teacher Rodney Wilson. Wilson originated the idea, served as founder on
the first coordinating committee, and chose October as the month of
celebration. Among early supporters and members of the first coordinating committee were Kevin Jennings of the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN); Kevin Boyer of the Gerber/Hart Gay and Lesbian Library and Archives in Chicago; Paul Varnell, writer for the Windy City Times;
Torey Wilson, Chicago area teacher; Johnda Boyce, women's studies major
at Columbus State University and Jessea Greenman of UC-Berkeley.
Many gay and lesbian organizations supported the concept early on as
did Governors William Weld of Massachusetts and Lowell Weicker of
Connecticut, Mayors such as Thomas Menino of Boston and Wellington Webb
of Denver, who recognized the inaugural month with official
proclamations. In 1995, the National Education Association indicated support of LGBT History Month as well as other history months by resolution at its General Assembly.
While it was first known as Lesbian and Gay History Month, the
coordinating committee soon added "bisexual" to the title. It has
subsequently become known as LGBT History Month. The event has received
criticism from conservative groups, such as the Concerned Women for America and others who believe it to be a form of "indoctrination."
On 2 June 2000, President Bill Clinton declared June "Gay & Lesbian Pride Month" to commemorate the June 1969 Stonewall riots in Lower Manhattan.
On 1 June 2009, President Barack Obama expanded the commemoration
further by declaring June Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Pride
Month.
In 2011, Equality Forum introduced an internal search engine for
all Icons from inception in 2006 to present. By clicking on "Icon
Search" and choosing one of hundreds of categories
such as African-American, athlete, California, Germany, HIV/AIDS,
Military, Religion, Transgender, Youth; visitors to the site will be
provided with links to all Icons in that category.
In 2012, for the first time, two American school districts celebrated LGBT History Month. The Broward County school
district in Florida signed a resolution in September in support of LGBT
Americans, and later that year the Los Angeles school district,
America's second-largest, also signed on.
Citywide celebrations
Berlin
In Berlin,
it is known as Queer History Month instead of LGBT History Month. Every
year it takes place in June. It is to educate and help people deal with
sexual, sexual diversity, and anti-discrimination in small projects.
During Queer History Month (QHM), people are able to find
detailed lessons on queer history suitable for both school and
non-school education. Also, educational institutions provide education
to schools and youth institutions directly.
Black History Month is an annual observance originating in the United States, where it is also known as African-American History Month.
It has received official recognition from governments in the United
States and Canada, and more recently has been observed unofficially in Ireland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. It began as a way of remembering important people and events in the history of the African diaspora. It is celebrated in February in the United States and Canada, while in Ireland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom it is observed in October.
The precursor to Black History Month was created in 1926 in the United States, when historian Carter G. Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History announced the second week of February to be "Negro History Week". This week was chosen because it coincided with the birthday of Abraham Lincoln on February 12 and of Frederick Douglass on February 14, both of which dates black communities had celebrated together since the late 19th century.
Negro History Week was the center of the equation. The thought-process
behind the week was never recorded, but scholars acknowledge two reasons
for its birth: recognition and importance.
Woodson felt deeply that at least one week would allow for the general
movement to become something annually celebrated. Also, after the ten
year long haul to successfully complete his "Journal of Negro History", he realized the subject deserved to resonate with a greater audience.
From the event's initial phase, primary emphasis was placed on
encouraging the coordinated teaching of the history of black Americans
in the nation's public schools.
The first Negro History Week was met with a lukewarm response, gaining
the cooperation of the Departments of Education of the states of North Carolina, Delaware, and West Virginia as well as the city school administrations of Baltimore and Washington, D.C..
Despite this far from universal observance, the event was regarded by
Woodson as "one of the most fortunate steps ever taken by the
Association", and plans for a repeat of the event on an annual basis
continued apace.
At the time of Negro History Week's launch, Woodson contended
that the teaching of black history was essential to ensure the physical
and intellectual survival of the race within broader society:
If a race has no history, it has no
worthwhile tradition, it becomes a negligible factor in the thought of
the world, and it stands in danger of being exterminated. The American
Indian left no continuous record. He did not appreciate the value of
tradition; and where is he today? The Hebrew keenly appreciated the
value of tradition, as is attested by the Bible itself. In spite of
worldwide persecution, therefore, he is a great factor in our
civilization.
By 1929, The Journal of Negro History
was able to note that with only two exceptions, officials with the
State Departments of Educations of "every state with considerable Negro
population" had made the event known to that state's teachers and
distributed official literature associated with the event".
Churches also played a significant role in the distribution of
literature in association with Negro History Week during this initial
interval, with the mainstream and black press aiding in the publicity
effort.
Throughout the 1930s, Negro History Week countered the growing
myth of the South’s “lost cause,” as epitomized in the novel and movie
“Gone With The Wind. That myth argued that slaves had been
well-treated, that the Civil War was a war of “northern aggression,” and
that blacks had been better off under slavery. “When you control a
man's thinking you do not have to worry about his actions,” Woodson
wrote in his book “The Miseducation of the American Negro.” “You do not
have to tell him not to stand here or go yonder. He will find his
'proper place' and will stay in it.”
In the black community, Black History Month was met with
enthusiastic response; it prompted the creation of Black history clubs,
an increase in interest among teachers, and interest from progressive
whites. Negro History Week grew in popularity throughout the following
decades, with mayors across the United States endorsing it as a holiday.
On February 21, 2016, 106-year Washington D.C. resident and school volunteer Virginia McLaurin visited the White House
as part of Black History Month. When asked by the president why she was
there, McLaurin said, "A Black president. A Black wife. And I’m here to
celebrate Black history. That's what I'm here for."
United States: Black History Month (1970)
The
Black United Students first Black culture center (Kuumba House) where
many events of the first Black History Month celebration took place.
Black History Month was first proposed by black educators and the Black United Students at Kent State University in February 1969. The first celebration of Black History Month took place at Kent State one year later, from January 2, 1970 – February 28, 1970.
Six years later, Black History Month was being celebrated all
across the country in educational institutions, centers of Black culture
and community centers, both great and small, when President Gerald Ford recognized Black History Month, during the celebration of the United States Bicentennial.
He urged Americans to "seize the opportunity to honor the too-often
neglected accomplishments of Black Americans in every area of endeavor
throughout our history".
United Kingdom (1987)
In the United Kingdom, Black History Month was first celebrated in October 1987. It was organised through the leadership of Ghanaian analyst Akyaaba Addai-Sebo, who had served as a coordinator of special projects for the Greater London Council (GLC) and created a collaboration to get it underway. It was first celebrated in London.
Canada (1995)
In 1995, after a motion by politician Jean Augustine, representing the riding of Etobicoke—Lakeshore in Ontario, Canada's House of Commons officially recognized February as Black History Month and honored Black Canadians. In 2008, Senator Donald Oliver moved to have the Senate officially recognize Black History Month, which was unanimously approved.
When first established, black history month resulted in some controversy.
Those who believed that black history month was limited to educational
institutions questioned whether it was appropriate to confine the
celebration of Black history to one month, as opposed to integration of
black history into the mainstream education the rest of the year.
Another concern was that contrary to the original inspiration for Black
History Month, which was a desire to redress the manner in which
American schools failed to represent Black historical figures as
anything other than slaves or colonial subjects, Black History Month
could reduce complex historical figures to overly simplified objects of "hero worship." Other critics refer to the celebration as a form of racism. Actor and director Morgan Freeman and actress Stacey Dash have criticized the concept of declaring only one month as Black History Month. Freeman noted, "I don't want a Black history month. Black history is American history."
Since its inception, black history month has expanded beyond its
initial acceptance in educational establishments. By 2020, Black History
month had become a focus beyond schools. The Wall Street Journal
describes it as "a time when the culture and contributions of African
Americans take center stage" in a variety of cultural institutions
including theaters, libraries and museums. It has also garnered attention from the U.S. business community. In February 2020 Forbes noted that "much of corporate America is commemorating" black history month including The Coca-Cola Company, Google, Target Corporation, Macy's, United Parcel Service and Under Armour.
African-American culture, also known as Black culture, refers to the contributions of African-Americans to the culture of the United States,
either as part of or distinct from mainstream American culture. The
distinct identity of African-American culture is rooted in the
historical experience of the African-American people, including the Middle Passage. The culture is both distinct and enormously influential on American and global worldwide culture as a whole.
African-American culture is rooted in the blend between the cultures of West and Central Africa
and the Anglo-Celtic culture that has influenced and modified its
development in the American South. Understanding its identity within the
culture of the United States,
it is, in the anthropological sense, conscious of its origins as
largely a blend of West and Central African cultures. Although slavery
greatly restricted the ability of African-Americans to practice their
original cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs
survived, and over time have modified and/or blended with European cultures and other cultures such as that of Amerindians. African-American identity was established during the slavery period,
producing a dynamic culture that has had and continues to have a
profound impact on American culture as a whole, as well as that of the
broader world.
Elaborate rituals and ceremonies were a significant part of
African-Americans' ancestral culture. Many West African societies
traditionally believed that spirits dwelled in their surrounding nature.
From this disposition, they treated their environment with mindful
care. They also generally believed that a spiritual life source existed
after death and that ancestors in this spiritual realm could then
mediate between the supreme Creator
and the living. Honor and prayer were displayed to these "ancient
ones", the spirit of that past. West Africans also believed in spiritual
possession.
At the beginning of the 18th century, Christianity began to
spread across North Africa; this shift in religion began displacing
traditional African spiritual practices. The enslaved Africans brought
this complex religious dynamic within their culture to America. This
fusion of traditional African beliefs with Christianity provided a
commonplace for those practicing religion in Africa and America.
After emancipation,
unique African-American traditions continued to flourish, as
distinctive traditions or radical innovations in music, art, literature,
religion, cuisine, and other fields. 20th-century sociologists, such as
Gunnar Myrdal, believed that African-Americans had lost most of their cultural ties with Africa. But, anthropological field research by Melville Herskovits and others demonstrated that there has been a continuum of African traditions among Africans of the diaspora. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European culture is found below the Mason-Dixon line in the American South.
For many years African-American culture developed separately from American culture, both because of slavery and the persistence of racial discrimination in America,
as well as African-American slave descendants' desire to create and
maintain their own traditions. Today, African-American culture has
influenced American culture and yet still remains a distinct cultural
body.
African-American cultural history
From the earliest days of American slavery
in the 17th century, slave owners sought to exercise control over their
slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The
physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves
and, later, of their free progeny, however, facilitated the retention
of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New
World generally, and in the United States in particular. Slave owners
deliberately tried to repress independent political or cultural
organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions or acts of
resistance that took place in the United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas.
African cultures, slavery, slave rebellions, and the civil rights
movement have shaped African-American religious, familial, political,
and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in a myriad of
ways: in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion,
dance, religion, cuisine, and worldview.
In turn, African-American culture has had a pervasive,
transformative impact on many elements of mainstream American culture.
This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization.
Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been
ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but
on world culture as well.
Oral tradition
Slaveholders
limited or prohibited education of enslaved African-Americans because
they feared it might empower their chattel and inspire or enable
emancipatory ambitions. In the United States, the legislation that
denied slaves formal education likely contributed to their maintaining a
strong oral tradition, a common feature of indigenous African cultures.
African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving
history, mores, and other cultural information among the people. This
was consistent with the griot
practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did
not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been
passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales
provided African-Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one
another.
Examples of African-American folktales include trickster tales of Br'er Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African-American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Other narratives that appear as important, recurring motifs in African-American culture are the "Signifying Monkey", "The Ballad of Shine", and the legend of Stagger Lee.
The legacy of the African-American oral tradition manifests in
diverse forms. African-American preachers tend to perform rather than
simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the
speaker's tone, volume, and cadence, which tend to mirror the rising
action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. The meaning of this
manner of preaching is not easily understood by Euro-Americans or others of non-African origin. Often song, dance, verse, and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Call and response
is another pervasive element of the African-American oral tradition. It
manifests in worship in what is commonly referred to as the "amen
corner". In direct contrast to the tradition present in American and
European cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to
interrupt and affirm the speaker.
This pattern of interaction is also in evidence in music, particularly
in blues and jazz forms. Hyperbolic and provocative, even incendiary,
rhetoric is another aspect of African-American oral tradition often
evident in the pulpit in a tradition sometimes referred to as "prophetic
speech".
Modernity and migration of black
communities to the North has had a history of placing strain on the
retention of black cultural practices and traditions. The urban and
radically different spaces in which black culture was being produced
raised fears in anthropologists and sociologists that the southern black
folk aspect of black popular culture were at risk of being lost in
history. The study over the fear of losing black popular cultural roots
from the South have a topic of interest to many anthropologists, who
among them include Zora Neale Hurston. Through her extensive studies of Southern folklore and cultural practices, Hurston has claimed that the popular Southern folklore
traditions and practices are not dying off. Instead they are evolving,
developing, and re-creating themselves in different regions.
Other aspects of African-American oral tradition include the dozens, signifying, trash talk,
rhyming, semantic inversion and word play, many of which have found
their way into mainstream American popular culture and become
international phenomena.
spoken-word poetry
is another example of how the African-American oral tradition has
influenced modern popular culture. Spoken-word artists employ the same
techniques as African-American preachers including movement, rhythm, and
audience participation. Rap music from the 1980s and beyond has been seen as an extension of African oral culture.
The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violentCivil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion
in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement,
and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism.
It also inspired a new renaissance in African-American literary and
artistic expression generally referred to as the African-American or "Black Arts Movement".
Another major aspect of the African-American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Négritude
among the artistic and literary circles in the US, Caribbean, and the
African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that "black is beautiful".
During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace
of, elements of African culture within African-American culture that
had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki,
gained popularity. More importantly, the African-American aesthetic
encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African
Americans.
African-American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan
regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the
use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and
relay messages. The African pedigree of African-American music is
evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. The banjo
was the first African instrument to be played and built in the United
States. Slaveholders discovered African-American slaves used drums to communicate.
Many African Americans sing "Lift Every Voice and Sing" in addition to the American national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner", or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln,
the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans
to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith, and hope
for the future. The song was adopted as the "Negro National Anthem" by the NAACP in 1919.
Many African-American children are taught the song at school, church or
by their families. "Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing" traditionally is sung
immediately following, or instead of, "The Star-Spangled Banner" at
events hosted by African-American churches, schools, and other
organizations.
In the 19th century, as the result of the blackfaceminstrel show,
African-American music entered mainstream American society. By the
early 20th century, several musical forms with origins in the
African-American community had transformed American popular music. Aided
by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African-American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor's Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess.
Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and R&B
developed in the mid-20th century. These genres became very popular in
white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. During the 1970s, the dozens, an urban African-American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down one's enemies (or friends), and the West Indian tradition of toasting developed into a new form of music. In the South Bronx the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of "rapping" grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as hip hop.
Contemporary
Hip
hop would become a multicultural movement, however, it still remained
important to many African Americans. The African-American Cultural
Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing, and go-go. House music
was created in black communities in Chicago in the 1980s.
African-American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in
American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In
addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists
have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such
as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups.
African-American music influenced other countries such as Nigeria.
The arts
Dance
African-American dance,
like other aspects of African-American culture, finds its earliest
roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made
up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European
sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus
in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both everyday life and special
occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance.
In the 19th century, African-American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African-American dance to become popular with white dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, the Jitterbug and the swing.
During the Harlem Renaissance, African-American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African-American dancers. African-American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading white choreographers, who often hired African-American dancers.
Contemporary African-American dance is descended from these
earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance
forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater
have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular
dance in America is also greatly influenced by African-American dance.
American popular dance has also drawn many influences from
African-American dance most notably in the hip-hop genre.
One of the uniquely African-American forms of dancing, turfing, emerged from social and political movements in the East Bay in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Turfing is a hood dance and a response to the loss of African-American
lives, police brutality, and race relations in Oakland, California.
The dance is an expression of Blackness, and one that integrates
concepts of solidarity, social support, peace, and the discourse of the
state of black people in our current social structures.
From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the
20th century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the
art of the United States.
During the period between the 17th century and the early 19th century,
art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures, and
ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have
similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In
contrast, African-American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion.
During the 19th century, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of 19th-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee's Bend
developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based
on traditional African-American quilts with a geometric simplicity that
developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art.
Midnight Golfer by Eugene J. Martin, mixed-media collage on rag paper
After the American Civil War,
museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of
African-American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was
still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice.
To increase the visibility of their work, many African-American artists
traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the
Harlem Renaissance that more European Americans began to pay attention to African-American art in America.
In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African-American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African-American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida,
created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and
peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold
their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art
agents, thus receiving the name "The Highwaymen". Rediscovered in the
mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American
folk history.
Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces
can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales.
The Black Arts Movement
of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in
African-American art. During this period, several African-American
artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AfriCOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear,
whose work has been acclaimed for years, was being honored with a
30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New
York in November 2007. Notable contemporary African-American artists include Willie Cole, David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Mose Tolliver, Reynold Ruffins, the late William Tolliver, and Kara Walker.
Literature
African-American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African-American writers and poets in the 18th century such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives.
Generations of hardships imposed on the African-American community
created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally
mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage
communication in any language other than English. This, combined with
prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate.
Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Louisiana, and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia.
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of the American Englishlanguage closely associated with the speech of, but not exclusive to, African Americans.
While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of
its logical structure, some of both whites and African Americans
consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English.
Many African Americans who were born outside the American South still
speak with hints of AAVE or southern dialect. Inner-city
African-American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE
sometimes have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after
school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting.
Fashion and aesthetics
Attire
The Black Arts Movement,
a cultural explosion of the 1960s, saw the incorporation of surviving
cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African
traditional clothing to create a uniquely African-American traditional
style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These colorful woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual T-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Other manifestations of traditional African dress in common evidence in African-American culture are vibrant colors, mud cloth, trade beads and the use of Adinkra motifs in jewelry and in couture and decorator fabrics.
Another common aspect of fashion in African-American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church.
It is expected in most churches that an individual present their best
appearance for worship. African-American women in particular are known
for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage
from the Christian Bible, "...every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head...", has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as "crowns".
Hip hop fashion is popular with African Americans. Grillz were made popular by African American rapper Nelly.
Sagging pants are a part of African American culture. Air Jordan, a shoe brand that's named after former African American basketball player Michael Jordan is very popular among the African-American community.
Hair
Hair styling in African-American culture is greatly varied.
African-American hair is typically composed of coiled curls, which range
from tight to wavy. Many women choose to wear their hair in its natural
state. Natural hair can be styled in a variety of ways, including the
afro, twist outs, braid outs, and wash and go styles. It is a myth that
natural hair presents styling problems or is hard to manage; this myth
seems prevalent because mainstream culture has, for decades, attempted
to get African-American women to conform to its standard of beauty
(i.e., straight hair). To that end, some women prefer straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes.
Although this can be a matter of personal preference, the choice is
often affected by straight hair being a beauty standard in the West and
the fact that hair type can affect employment. However, more and more
women are wearing their hair in its natural state and receiving positive
feedback. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable
practice for men is to leave one's hair natural.
Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is
either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair.
However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, waves, fades, and dreadlocks,
have been growing in popularity. Despite their association with radical
political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western
hairstyles, the styles have attained considerable, but certainly
limited, social acceptance.
Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African-American men than in other male populations in the US. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African-American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style.
The preference for facial hair among African-American men is due partly
to personal taste, but also because they are more prone than other
ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave.
Body image
European-Americans
have sometimes appropriated different hair braiding techniques and
other forms of African-American hair. There are also individuals and
groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African
aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This
includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined
African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in
women, fuller, more voluptuous body types.
Religion
While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most prevalent. Additionally, 14 percent of Muslims in the United States and Canada are black.
The religious institutions of African-American Christians commonly are referred to collectively as the black church.
During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief
systems and typically denied free religious practice, forced to become
Christian. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by
integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These
practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic
singing, remain a large part of worship in the African-American church.
African-American churches taught that all people were equal in God's
eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to one's master taught in
white churches as hypocritical – yet accepted and propagated internal
hierarchies and support for corporal punishment of children among other things. Instead the African-American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African-American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787.
After the Civil War the merger of three smaller Baptist groups formed the National Baptist Convention.
This organization is the largest African-American Christian
Denomination and the second largest Baptist denomination in the United
States. An African-American church is not necessarily a separate
denomination. Several predominantly African-American churches exist as
members of predominantly white denominations.
African-American churches have served to provide African-American
people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were
denied in mainstream American society. Because of this,
African-American pastors became the bridge between the African-American
and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the
Civil Rights Movement.
Like many Christians, African-American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found in African-American theaters and churches all over the country.
Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative Trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Arabs and Berbers in North Africa. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop
explained: "The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa
[...] consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated
peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black
kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their
jurisdiction".
Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim
identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly
converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were
besieged with gross inconveniences to their religious practice such as
in the case of the Protestant American mainland.
In the decades after slavery and particularly during the
depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and
sometimes controversial movements in the African-American community. The
first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalistNation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African-American Muslims now follow traditional Islam.
Many former members of the Nation of Islam converted to Sunni Islam when Warith Deen Mohammed
took control of the organization after his father's death in 1975 and
taught its members the traditional form of Islam based on the Qur'an. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of SunniMosque
attendees are African Americans. In fact, most African-American Muslims
are orthodox Muslims, as only 2% are of the Nation of Islam.
Judaism
There are 150,000 African Americans in the United States who practice Judaism. Some of these are members of mainstream Jewish groups like the Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox branches of Judaism; others belong to non-mainstream Jewish groups like the Black Hebrew Israelites.
The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African-American
religious organizations whose practices and beliefs are derived to some
extent from Judaism. Their varied teachings often include, that African
Americans are descended from the BiblicalIsraelites.
Studies have shown in the last 10 to 15 years there has been major increase in African-Americans identifying as Jewish. Rabbi Capers Funnye,
the first cousin of Michelle Obama, says in response to skepticism by
some on people being African-American and Jewish at the same time, "I am
a Jew, and that breaks through all color and ethnic barriers."
Other religions
Aside from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, there are also African Americans who follow Buddhism and a number of other religions. There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as West African Vodun, Santería, Ifá and diasporic traditions like the Rastafari movement.
Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the
Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of
religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer
common among the larger American religions, these groups may be viewed
negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. It must be
stated, however, that since the Supreme Court judgement that was given to the Lukumi Babaluaye church of Florida in 1993, there has been no major legal challenge to their right to function as they see fit.
Irreligious beliefs
In a 2008 Pew Forum survey, 12% of African Americans described themselves as nothing in particular (11%), agnostic (1%), or atheist (<0 .5="" p="">
Life events
For
most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the
pattern of mainstream American culture. While African Americans and
whites often lived to themselves for much of American history, both
groups generally had the same perspective on American culture. There are
some traditions that are unique to African Americans.
Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are
linked to African traditions. Some pre-teen and teenage boys and girls
take classes to prepare them for adulthood. These classes tend to focus
on spirituality,
responsibility, and leadership. Many of these programs are modeled
after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on
embracing African cultures.
To this day, some African-American couples choose to "jump the broom" as a part of their wedding ceremony. Sources claim that this practice can be traced back to either Ghana or Rural England
Although, this tradition largely fell out of favor in the
African-American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a
slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm
their African heritage.
Funeral
traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including
religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably
the most important part of death and dying in the African-American
culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days
before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family
members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to
provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making
decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks.
The spirituality of death is very important in African-American
culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community,
or both, are typically present with the family through the entire
process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many
services are called homegoings or homecomings, instead of funerals,
based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife;
"Returning to God" or the earth.
The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of
the person's life, deeds and accomplishments – the "good things" rather
than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New
Orleans jazz funeral
tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those
gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend.
Cuisine
In studying of the African American culture, food cannot be left out
as one of the medians to understand their traditions, religion,
interaction, and social and cultural structures of their community.
Observing the ways they prepare their food and eat their food ever since
the enslaved era, reveals about the nature and identity of African
American culture in the United States. Derek Hicks examines the origins of "gumbo",
which is considered a soul food to many African Americans, in his
reference to the intertwinement of food and culture in African American
community. No written evidence are found historically about the gumbo or
its recipes, so through the African American's nature of orally passing
their stories and recipes down, gumbo came to represent their truly
communal dish. Gumbo is said to be "an invention of enslaved Africans
and African Americans" in Louisiana.
By mixing and cooking leftover ingredients from their White owners
(often less desirable cuts of meats and vegetables) all together into a
dish that has consistency between stew and soup, African Americans took
the detestable and created it into a desirable dish. Through sharing of
this food in churches with a gathering of their people, they not only
shared the food, but also experience, feelings, attachment, and sense of
unity that brings the community together.
The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, indigo dyes, and cotton,
can be traced to African influences. African-American foods reflect
creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under
slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat,
and after emancipation many were often too poor to afford them.
Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South
(but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes creative use
of inexpensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting
and fishing. Pig intestines are boiled and sometimes battered and fried
to make chitterlings, also known as "chitlins". Ham hocks and neck bones provide seasoning to soups, beans and boiled greens (turnip greens, collard greens, and mustard greens).
Other common foods, such as fried chicken and fish, macaroni and cheese, cornbread, and hoppin' john (black-eyed peas and rice) are prepared simply. When the African-American population was considerably more rural than it generally is today, rabbit, opossum, squirrel, and waterfowl
were important additions to the diet. Many of these food traditions are
especially predominant in many parts of the rural South.
Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat, sodium,
and starch. Highly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers,
farmhands and rural lifestyles generally, it is now a contributing
factor to obesity, heart disease, and diabetes
in a population that has become increasingly more urban and sedentary.
As a result, more health-conscious African Americans are using
alternative methods of preparation, eschewing trans fats in favor of natural vegetable oils and substituting smoked turkey for fatback
and other, cured pork products; limiting the amount of refined sugar in
desserts; and emphasizing the consumption of more fruits and vegetables
than animal protein. There is some resistance to such changes, however,
as they involve deviating from long culinary tradition.
The roots of "Soul food" are spread up and down the West Coast of Africa (Senegal, Guinea, Sierre Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Cameroon, Gabon, Nigeria and Angola), but the "fruits" can be found across the face of America. Okra came from Ethiopia and Eritrea. Rice was imported from the island of Madagascar. Soul food is similar to gypsy cooking in Europe.
Holidays and observances
As
with other American racial and ethnic groups, African Americans observe
ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. Holidays
observed in African-American culture are not only observed by African
Americans but are widely considered American holidays. The birthday of
noted American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr has been observed nationally since 1983. It is one of four federal holidays named for an individual.
Black History Month
is another example of another African-American observance that has been
adopted nationally and its teaching is even required by law in some
states. Black History Month is an attempt to focus attention on
previously neglected aspects of the American history, chiefly the lives
and stories of African Americans. It is observed during the month of
February to coincide with the founding of the NAACP and the birthdays of Frederick Douglass, a prominent African-American abolitionist, and Abraham Lincoln, the United States president who signed the Emancipation Proclamation.
On June 7, 1979, President Jimmy Carter decreed that June would be the month of black music. For the past 28 years, presidents have announced to Americans that Black Music Month
(also called African-American Music Month) should be recognized as a
critical part of American heritage. Black Music Month is highlighted
with various events urging citizens to revel in the many forms of music
from gospel to hip-hop. African-American musicians, singers, and
composers are also highlighted for their contributions to the nation's
history and culture.
Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas.
Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique
history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American
holidays with observances in the United States. Another holiday not
widely observed outside of the African-American community is the
birthday of Malcolm X. The day is observed on May 19 in American cities
with a significant African-American population, including Washington,
D.C.
Another noted African-American holiday is Kwanzaa.
Like Emancipation Day, it is not widely observed outside of the
African-American community, although it is growing in popularity with
both African-American and African communities. African-American scholar
and activist "Maulana" Ron Karenga invented the festival of Kwanzaa in 1966, as an alternative to the increasing commercialization of Christmas.
Derived from the harvest rituals of Africans, Kwanzaa is observed each
year from December 26 through January 1. Participants in Kwanzaa
celebrations affirm their African heritage and the importance of family
and community by drinking from a unity cup; lighting red, black, and
green candles; exchanging heritage symbols, such as African art; and
recounting the lives of people who struggled for African and
African-American freedom.
Negro Election Day
is also another festival derived from rituals of African culture
specifically West Africa and revolves around the voting of a black
official in New England colonies during the 18th century.
Names
Although many African-American names are common among the larger
population of the United States, distinct naming trends have emerged
within African-American culture. Prior to the 1950s and 1960s, most
African-American names closely resembled those used within European
American culture.
A dramatic shift in naming traditions began to take shape in the 1960s
and 1970s in America. With the rise of the mid-century Civil Rights
Movement, there was a dramatic rise in names of various origins. The practice of adopting neo-African or Islamic
names gained popularity during that era. Efforts to recover African
heritage inspired selection of names with deeper cultural significance.
Before this, using African names was uncommon because African Americans
were several generations removed from the last ancestor to have an
African name, as slaves were often given European names and most surnames are of Anglo origin.
African-American names have origins in many languages including French, Latin, English, Arabic, and African languages. One very notable influence on African-American names is the Muslim religion. Islamic names entered the popular culture with the rise of The Nation of Islam among Black Americans with its focus on civil rights. The popular name "Aisha" has origins in the Qur'an.
Despite the origins of these names in the Muslim religion and the place
of the Nation of Islam in the civil rights movement, many Muslim names
such as Jamal and Malik
entered popular usage among Black Americans simply because they were
fashionable, and many Islamic names are now commonly used by African
Americans regardless of their religion. Names of African origin began to crop up as well. Names like Ashanti, Tanisha, Aaliyah, Malaika have origins in the continent of Africa.
By the 1970s and 1980s, it had become common within the culture
to invent new names, although many of the invented names took elements
from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le-,Da/De-,Ra/Re-, or Ja/Je- and suffixes such as -ique/iqua,-isha, and -aun/-awn are common, as well as inventive spellings for common names.
Even with the rise of creative names, it is also still common for
African Americans to use biblical, historic, or European names.
Family
When slavery was practiced in the United States, it was common for families
to be separated through sale. Even during slavery, however, many
African-American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds.
Free African men and women, who managed to buy their own freedom by
being hired out, who were emancipated, or who had escaped their masters,
often worked long and hard to buy the members of their families who
remained in bondage and send for them.
Others, separated from blood kin, formed close bonds based on fictive kin; play relations, play aunts, cousins, and the like. This practice, a holdover from African oral traditions such as sanankouya,
survived Emancipation, with non-blood family friends commonly accorded
the status and titles of blood relations. This broader, more African
concept of what constitutes family and community, and the deeply rooted
respect for elders that is part of African traditional societies, may be
the genesis of the common use of the terms like "cousin" (or "cuz"),
"aunt", "uncle", "brother", "sister", "Mother", and "Mama" when
addressing other African-American people, some of whom may be complete
strangers.
African-American family structure
Immediately after slavery, African-American families struggled to
reunite and rebuild what had been taken. As late as 1960, when most
African Americans lived under some form of segregation, 78 percent of
African-American families were headed by married couples. This number
steadily declined during the latter half of the 20th century.
For the first time since slavery, a majority of African-American
children live in a household with only one parent, typically the mother.
This apparent weakness is balanced by mutual-aid systems established by extended family members to provide emotional and economic support. Older family members pass on social and cultural traditions such as religion and manners
to younger family members. In turn, the older family members are cared
for by younger family members when they cannot care for themselves.
These relationships exist at all economic levels in the African-American
community, providing strength and support both to the African-American
family and the community.
Politics and social issues
Since the passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, African Americans are voting and being elected to public office in increasing numbers. As of 2008 the United States had approximately 10,000 African-American elected officials.
African Americans overwhelmingly associate with the Democratic Party. Only 11 percent of African Americans supported for George W. Bush in the 2004 Presidential Election.
African-Americans may express political and social sentiments through hip-hop culture, including graffiti, break-dancing, rapping, and more. This cultural movement makes statements about historical, as well as present-day topics like street culture and incarceration, and oftentimes expresses a call for change. Hip-hop artists play a prominent role in activism and in fighting social injustices, and have a cultural role in defining and reflecting on political and social issues.
African Americans in general differ from whites in their condemnation of homosexuality. Prominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay-rights issues such as gay marriage. This stands in stark contrast to the down-low phenomenon of covert male–male sexual acts. Some within the African-American community take a different position, notably the late Coretta Scott King and the Reverend Al Sharpton.
Sharpton, when asked in 2003 whether he supported gay marriage, replied
that he might as well have been asked if he supported black marriage or
white marriage.
McDonald's has a campaign that celebrates their African-American consumers.
Many celebrities have appropriated African-American culture.
African-American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African-American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States,
either through formal laws, or as a product of social norms. Despite
this, African-American neighborhoods have played an important role in
the development of nearly all aspects of both African-American culture
and broader American culture.
Due to segregated conditions and widespread poverty, some
African-American neighborhoods in the United States have been called
"ghettos". The use of this term is controversial and, depending on the
context, potentially offensive. Despite mainstream America's use of the
term "ghetto" to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic
minorities, those living in the area often used it to signify something
positive. The African-American ghettos did not always contain
dilapidated houses and deteriorating projects, nor were all of its
residents poverty-stricken. For many African Americans, the ghetto was
"home", a place representing authentic "blackness" and a feeling,
passion, or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and
suffering of being of African descent in America.
Langston Hughes
relays in the "Negro Ghetto" (1931) and "The Heart of Harlem" (1945):
"The buildings in Harlem are brick and stone/And the streets are long
and wide,/But Harlem's much more than these alone,/Harlem is what's
inside." Playwright August Wilson used the term "ghetto" in Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (1984) and Fences (1987), both of which draw upon the author's experience growing up in the Hill District of Pittsburgh, an African-American ghetto.
Although African-American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment, with lower-quality schools, less-effective policing and fire protection, there are institutions such as churches and museums
and political organizations that help to improve the physical and
social capital of African-American neighborhoods. In African-American
neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion.
For some African Americans, the kind spirituality learned through these
churches works as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of
racism. Museums devoted to African-American history are also found in many African-American neighborhoods.
Many African-American neighborhoods are located in inner cities, and these are the mostly residential neighborhoods located closest to the central business district. The built environment is often row houses
or brownstones, mixed with older single-family homes that may be
converted to multi-family homes. In some areas there are larger apartment buildings. Shotgun houses
are an important part of the built environment of some southern
African-American neighborhoods. The houses consist of three to five
rooms in a row with no hallways. This African-American house design is
found in both rural and urban southern areas, mainly in African-American
communities and neighborhoods.
In Black Rednecks and White Liberals, Thomas Sowell suggested that modern urban black ghetto culture is rooted in the white Cracker culture of the North Britons and Scots-Irish who migrated from the generally lawless border regions of Britain to the American South, where they formed a redneck culture common to both blacks and whites in the antebellum South.
According to Sowell, characteristics of this culture included lively
music and dance, violence, unbridled emotions, flamboyant imagery,
illegitimacy, religious oratory marked by strident rhetoric, and a lack
of emphasis on education and intellectual interests.
Because redneck culture proved counterproductive, "that culture long
ago died out ... among both white and black Southerners, while still
surviving today in the poorest and worst of the urban black ghettos", which Sowell described as being characterized by "brawling, braggadocio, self-indulgence, [and] disregard of the future",
and where "belligerence is considered being manly and crudity is
considered cool, while being civilized is regarded as 'acting white'."
Sowell asserts that white liberal Americans have perpetuated this
"counterproductive and self-destructive lifestyle" among black Americans
living in urban ghettos through "the welfare state, and
look-the-other-way policing, and smiling at 'gangsta rap'".
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
