| Eschatology |
|---|
| Islam |
|---|
 |
|
|
Islamic eschatology is the aspect of Islamic theology incorporating the beliefs and the Islamic eschatological narrative regarding signs of tribulation, the end of the world, and afterlife with the resurrection of the dead, the final judgment, and the eternal division of the righteous and the wicked.
Similarly to the other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches that there will be a resurrection of the dead that will be followed by a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. The Great Tribulation is described in the ḥadīth literature and commentaries of various medieval Muslim scholars, including al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and Muhammad al-Bukhari, among others. The Day of Judgement is referred to with several names throughout the Quranic text, such as the Day of Reckoning, the Last Day, and the Hour (al-Sā'ah). Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (The Great Epic), or Ghaybah (Occultation) in the Shīʿa branch of Islam. The righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Paradise), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell).
The ḥadīth literature describes several events happening before the Day of Judgment, which are described as "minor signs" and "major signs". During this period, terrible corruption and chaos would rule the Earth, caused by Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (an eschatological figure similar to the Antichrist in Christianity), then the Mahdi (a righteous man descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad), assisted by the prophet ʿĪsā (Jesus) who will return to Earth, will defeat the Dajjal and establish a period of peace, liberating the world from cruelty and injustice. These events will be followed by a time of serenity when people will live according to religious values.
A 2012 poll conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 50% or more respondents in several Muslim-majority countries (Lebanon, Turkey, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Tunisia, and Morocco) expected the Mahdi (the final redeemer according to Islam) to return during their lifetime.
Sources for Islamic eschatology
Islamic scripture has a plethora of content on the Last Judgment and the tribulation associated with it. The two sources which are primarily referred to when exploring the topic of Islamic eschatology are the Quran itself and the hadith, or accounts of the actions and sayings of Muhammad during his lifetime. One of the functions of the Quran as it relates to eschatology and the Day of Judgement is to serve as a reminder of Allah's intentions for humanity and as a warning for those who do not abide by Him. Hadith are often referred to in tandem with the Quran in order to create a more detailed and comprehensive understanding of Islamic scripture. The compilation of hadith took place approximately two hundred years after the death of Muhammad. The Last Judgment and the tribulation have also been discussed in the commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and Muhammad al-Bukhari. Scholarly discourse on eschatology and its sub themes often includes an exploration of hadith as they pertain to matters in the Quran, and serve as a source for clarification. Hadith are generally viewed as being second in authority to the Quran, as the Quran is generally understood to be the verbatim word of God.
Signs of the End Times
In Islam, there are a number of minor signs and major signs. The Mahdi is said to be a link between the minor and major signs. In the Hadith, it is mentioned that minor signs will occur first, then the Mahdi will come and then the major signs. There is debate over whether they could occur concurrently or must be at different points in time.
Greater signs
- Sexual immorality appears among people to such an extent that they commit it openly, except that they will be afflicted by plagues and diseases unknown to their forefathers;
- People cheat in weights and measures (business, trades, etc.) and are stricken with famine, calamity, and oppression as a result;
- They withhold charity and hoard their wealth, and rain is withheld from the sky from them;
- They break their covenant with God and His Messenger and God enables their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands;
- Men and women partake in sihr and shirk; they travel the world through attaching themselves to djinn, causing mischief;
- Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.
- The conquest of Constantinople without weapons
Minor signs
- The Arabs will be utterly destroyed and sent to Hell.
- The coming of fitna (tribulations) and removal of khushoo (fearfulness of God, reverence of God, etc.)
- A person passing by a grave might say to another the following: "I wish it were my abode."
- The loss of honesty, as well as authority put in the hands of those who do not deserve it.
- The loss of knowledge and the prevalence of religious ignorance.
- Frequent, sudden, and unexpected deaths.
- The killer will not know why he has killed, and the one killed will not know why he was killed.
- Acceleration of time.
- Fabrication of hadiths
- Rejection of hadiths.
- The spread of riba (usury, interest), zina (adultery, fornication, prostitution, rape, sodomy, pedophilia and pederasty, homosexuality, incest, and bestiality), and the drinking of alcohol.
- Widespread acceptance of music.
- A young boy who lived in Muhammad's time won't be very old when the Hour comes.
- Pride and competition in the decoration of mosques.
- Women will increase in number and men will decrease in number so much so that fifty women will be looked after by one man.
- Abundance of earthquakes.
- Frequent occurrences of disgrace, distortion, public humiliation and defamation.
- When people wish to die because of the severe trials and tribulations that they are suffering.
- In a fight between Jews and Muslims, stones and trees would inform Muslims about Jews hiding behind them.
- Nobody will live after 100 years.
- When paying charity becomes a burden.
- Nomads will compete in the construction of tall buildings.
- Women will appear naked despite their being dressed.
- People will seek knowledge from misguided and straying scholars.
- Liars will be believed, honest people disbelieved, and faithful people called traitors.
- The death of righteous, knowledgeable people.
- The emergence of indecency (obscenity) and enmity among relatives and neighbours.
- The rise of idolatry and polytheists within the Ummah.
- The Euphrates will uncover a mountain of gold.
- There will be 30 false prophets after Muhammad
- A man from Qahtan appears, driving people with his stick
- A man called Jahjah will occupy the throne
- The land of the Arabs will return to being a land of rivers and fields.
- People will increasingly earn money by unlawful (Haram) ways.
- There will be much rain but little vegetation.
- Evil people will be expelled from Medina.
- Predators will speak to people, the tip of a man's whip and the straps on his sandal will speak to him, and his thigh will inform him of what occurred with his family after him.
- Lightning and thunder will become more prevalent.
- Islam will wear out as embroidery on a garment wears out, until no one will know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are.
- All Jews will accept Islam if 10 Jewish scholars convert to Islam.
- Countries conquered by Muslims (Iraq, Syria, Egypt) will stop paying money and Muslims will return where they started
- The buttocks of the women of the tribe of Daus move while going round Dhi-al-Khalasa (an idol similar to the Kaba)
- There will be a special greeting for people of distinction.
- Trade will become so widespread that a woman will help her husband in business.
- No truly honest man will remain and no one will be trusted.
- Only the worst people will be left; they will not know any good nor forbid any evil (i.e. No one will say there is no god but Allah).
- People will worship Lat and Uzza (goddesses that were worshipped by pre-Islamic Arabs)
- Luka bin Luka (meaning "the wickedest") will be the happiest person
- Nations will soon call each other to attack Muslims.
- There will be twelve caliphs. All of them from the Quraysh tribe.
- Islamic knowledge will be passed on, but no one will follow it correctly.
- Muslim rulers will come who do not follow the guidance and tradition of the Sunnah. Some of their men will have the hearts of devils in a human body.
- Stinginess will become more widespread and honorable people will perish.
- A man will obey his wife and disobey his mother, and treat his friend kindly while shunning his father.
- There will be no more Khosrau and Caesar
- Pilgrimage to Mekka (hajj) will be abandoned
- Voices will be raised in the mosques.
- Rain will destroy all dwellings except tents.
- The leader of a people will be the worst of them.
- The most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of.
- Much wine will be drunk.
- Muslims shall fight against a nation who wear shoes made of hair and with faces like hammered shields, with red complexions and small eyes.
- The Quraysh tribe will get extinct.
- The emergence of the Sufyani within the Syria region.
- The Romans will form a majority amongst people
- The truce and joint Roman-Muslim campaign against a common enemy, followed by al-Malhama al-Kubra (Armageddon), a Roman vs. Muslim war.
- The Black Standard will come from Khorasan (see Hadith of black flags), nothing shall turn them back until it is planted in Jerusalem.
- Mecca will be attacked and the Kaaba will be destroyed.
- Dajjal nor plague will be able to enter Medina
- Emergence of an army, from Yemen, that will make Islam dominant.
- An Abyssinian having two small shanks who would destroy the House ol Allah
- Swelling of crescents
- An Arab king will die. There will be disagreement concerning succession. Then a man will emerge from Medina. He will hurry to Mecca, and the people of Mecca will come out to him and urge him and try to force him to accept the Bay'ah.
- The sun would rise from West any day except Friday (It is the day when the world has begun to be over)
- A first trumpet will sound, and all remaining humanity will die, followed by a period of forty years, at the end of which smoke will envelope the world for forty days
- The people of the West will continue to triumphantly follow the truth until the Hour is established.
- Markets will approach / come close
- The Qur'an will vanish in one night
- Islam started as something strange and it would again revert (to its old position) of being strange just as it started, like serpent crawling back into its hole
However, these signs aforementioned are not all based on reliable hadiths and if one of them is based on a reliable hadith, it could not be treated as a commandment or a prohibition.
The Mahdi
Mahdi (Arabic: ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, ISO 233: al-mahdīy), meaning "Rightly Guided One" is a messianic figure in Islamic tradition. He makes his first appearance in the hadiths and is said to be the sign between Minor signs and Major signs of Day of Resurrection. Some Shia Muslims regard him as the first sign of the third period. Hadith reports state that he will be a descendant of Muhammad through Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and cousin Ali's son Hassan. According to Shias, Mahdi will be looked upon to kill Dajjal to end the disintegration of the Muslim community, and to prepare for the reign of Isa (Jesus), who will rule for a time thereafter. According to Sunnis, Mahdi will be against Dajjal and will have some Muslim communities in Shaam and that Jesus will return to kill Dajjal. The Mahdi will fulfill his prophetic mission, a vision of justice and peace, before submitting to Jesus' rule. The physical features of Mahdi are described in the hadith; he will be of Arab complexion, of average height, with a big forehead, large eyes, and a sharp nose. He will have a mole on his cheek, and be recognized by the Muslim community while he sits in his own home. As written by Abu Dawud, "Our Mahdi will have a broad forehead and a pointed (prominent) nose. He will fill the earth with justice as it is filled with injustice and tyranny. He will rule for seven years." In some accounts, after the seven years of peace, God will send a cold wind causing everyone with the smallest measure of human-kindness or faith, to die and carry them straight to heaven. Therefore, only the wicked will remain and be victims of terrible animals and Shayateen, until the day of resurrection.
Though the predictions of the duration of his rule differ, hadith are consistent in describing that God will perfect him in a single night, imbuing him with inspiration and wisdom, and his name will be announced from the sky. The Mahdi will bring back worship of true Islamic values, and bring the Ark of the Covenant to light. He will conquer Constantinople and Mount Daylam and will regard Jerusalem and the Dome as his home. His banner will be that of Muhammad: black and unstitched, with a halo. Furled since the death of Muhammad, the banner will unfurl when the Mahdi appears. He will be helped by angels and others that will prepare the way for him. He will understand the secrets of abjad.
Sunni and Shia perspectives
Sunni and Shia Islam have different beliefs regarding the identity of Mahdi. Historically, Sunni Islam considers religious authority as being derived from the caliph, who was appointed by the companions of Muhammad at his death and the companions of Muhammad. The Sunnis view Mahdi as a leader that is expected to arrive to rule the world and reestablish righteousness. Sunni Muslims also believe that Mahdi's name will be Muhammad and his father's name will be Abdullah, thus making his full name Muhammad ibn Abdullah. However, Twelver branch of Shias believe that Mahdi will be the twelfth Imam. Shia Muslims believe his name is Muhammad bin Hasan and that he is the son of Hasan-al-Askari. Shias believe that Mahdi hid in 873 when he was four. He maintained contact with his followers until 940, when he entered the Occultation. Twelver branch believes that al-Mahdi is the current Imam, and will emerge at the end of the current age. Some scholars say that, although unnoticed by others present, the Mahdi of Twelver Islam continues to make an annual pilgrimage while he resides outside of Mecca. In contradistinction, Sunni Islam foresees him as a separate and new person. Sunni tradition has attributed such intellectual and spiritual attributes to numerous Muslims at the end of each Muslim century from the origin of Islam to the present day. Sunni Muslims also believe that the Isa (Jesus) will pray behind Mahdi. The present Ayatollahs of Iran see themselves as joint caretakers of the office of the Imam until he returns.
The Mahdi is not described in the Quran, only in the hadith, with scholars suggesting he arose when Arabian tribes were settling in Syria under Muawiya. "They anticipated 'the Mahdi who will lead the rising people of the Yemen back to their country' in order to restore the glory of their lost Himyarite kingdom. It was believed that he would eventually conquer Constantinople."
According to Nasir Khusraw, a celebrated Fatimid thinker, the line of Imams from among Imam 'Ali's descendants though Imam Husayn will eventually culminate in the arrival of the Lord of the Resurrection (Qāʾim al-Qiyāma). This individual is believed to be the perfect being and the purpose of creation, and through him the world will come out of darkness and ignorance and "into the light of her Lord" (Quran 39:69). His era, unlike that of the enunciators of divine revelation (nāṭiqs) who came before him, is not one where God prescribes the people to work. Rather, his is an era of reward for those "who laboured in fulfilment of (the Prophets') command and with knowledge". Preceding the Lord of the Resurrection (Qāʾim al-Qiyāma) is his proof (ḥujjat). The Qur’anic verse stating that "the night of power (laylat al-qadr) is better than a thousand months" (Quran 97:3) is said to refer to the proof of the Lord of the Resurrection, whose knowledge is superior to that of a thousand Imams, though their rank, collectively, is one. Hakim Nasir also recognizes the successors of the Lord of the Resurrection to be his deputies (khulafāʾ).
Major signs
Following the second period, the third will be marked by the ten major signs known as alamatu's-sa'ah al-kubra (the major signs of the end). They are as follows without any exact order:
- A huge black cloud of smoke (dukhan) will cover the earth.
- Three sinkings of the earth, one in the east.
- One sinking of the earth in the west.
- One sinking of the earth in Arabia.
- The coming of Dajjal, presuming himself as an apostle of God. The false messiah—anti-Christ, Masih ad-Dajjal—shall appear with great powers as a one-eyed man with his right eye blind and deformed like a grape. Although believers will not be deceived, he will claim to be God, to hold the keys to heaven and hell, and will lead many astray. In reality, his heaven is hell, and his hell is heaven. The Dajjal will be followed by seventy thousand Jews of Isfahan wearing Persian shawls.
- The return of Isa (Jesus), from the fourth sky, to kill Dajjal.
- Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj (Gog and Magog), a Japhetic tribe of vicious beings who had been imprisoned by Dhul-Qarnayn, will break out. They will ravage the earth, drink all the water of Lake Tiberias, and kill all believers in their way. Isa, Imam Al-Mahdi, and the believers with them will go to the top of a mountain and pray for the destruction of Gog and Magog. God eventually will send disease and worms to wipe them out.
- The sun will rise from the west.
- The Dabbat al-Ard, or Beast of the Earth, will come out of the ground to talk to people.
- The first blow of the trumpet will sound and everything will fall dead
- The second blow of the trumpet will be sounded, the dead will return to life, and a fire will come out of Yemen that shall gather all to Mahshar Al Qiy'amah (The Gathering for Judgment).
Descent of Jesus
Islamic literature predicts that the Mahdi will be followed and assisted in his fight against evil "by a bygone prophet who will come back to earth". This prophet will not be Muhammad (as non-Muslims might expect) but ʿĪsā (Jesus), 'praised in the Quran as the Messiah and the “Word of God.”' "The usual interpretation" of the prophecy of Jesus's return to earth is that He "will put an end to his own worship, symbolized by the cross, and re-establish the dietary laws that Christianity abandoned but Jews and Muslims still observe." While the Quran is not explicit about Jesus' return, many Muslims believe that at least two Quranic verses refer to his second coming during the end times. The probably most significant verse is Surah 4:157: "And [for] their saying, 'Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.' And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but [another] was made to resemble him to them. And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it except the following of assumption. And they did not kill him, for certain." The other states: "And indeed, Jesus will be [a sign for] knowledge of the Hour, so be not in doubt of it, and follow Me. This is a straight path". (43:61)." The Arabic language is not clear, as to who the people of the book have to believe in. Tabari author of one of the most important Sunni Tafsirs argues, the verse refers to Jesus, who will unite all believers under the banner of Islam. Hadiths further elaborate the events following Jesus arrival. According to Sahih al-Bukhari, Jesus will descend among Muslims, break the cross, kill the pig and abolish the Jizya. Although traced back to Abu Hurairah, one of the sahaba, such hadiths might actually have been introduced later during civil wars in the early Abbasid Caliphate, when a savior was expected. While for Shias, the Mahdi will be the savior, some Sunnis tended to expect Jesus' return. During the early Abbasid Caliphate, wearing crucifixes in processions and holding pigs in public, was forbidden. Otherwise, the breaking of the cross, might reflect general disapproval of this symbol by Muslims, and slaying pigs a reference to Jesus exorcism of Legion.
Shia eschatology
Various eschatological interpretations exist within Shia Islam. The concept of seven celestial Hells, as well as the idea that one's souls temporarily wait in either Paradise or Hellfire until the End Times, are accounted for throughout Isma'ili Shi'i literature. Shia tradition broadly tends to recognize the coming of the Mahdi as signifying punishment to come for non-believers. Twelver Shia scholar 'Allama al-Hilli expressed that it is not possible for any Muslim to be ignorant of "the imamate and of the Return" and thus "whoever is ignorant of any of them is outside the circle of believers and worthy of eternal punishment." This statement is not indicative of all Shia eschatological thought, but does note the existence of a form of eternal punishment, or realm that is opposite Paradise.
Raj`a
Raj`a (Arabic: الرجعة, romanized: āl rj'ah, lit. 'Return') in Islamic terminology, refers to the Second Coming, or the return to life of a given past historical figure after that person's physical death. Shia believe that before the Day of Judgement, Muhammad al-Mahdi will return with a group of chosen companions. This return is more properly known as zuhur or 'appearance,' as the Hidden Imam is believed to have remained alive during his period of occultation, since the year 874. The return of these historical figures will signify the beginning of the Last Judgment. The purpose of this return is to establish justice for those who were oppressed in their lifetime up until their death: the oppressors are punished directly by the oppressed during this future reappearance.
Some Sunni scholars do believe in Raj’a, citing the return of numerous people, such as the Seven Sleepers, synchronous with the appearance of the Mahdi. According to Jalaluddin Al-Sayuti, in contrast to Shia belief, the return of Muhammad is not limited to a specific time in the future. Al-Sayuti did not mention if any other religious figures will return after death before the resurrection. According to Abu 'Abdullah Al-Qurtubi, raj`a is understood to be the lack of physical presence of a prophet, who marks his apparent death by absence in the physical world but will reappear, from time to time, to those who are pure in heart.
Isa
 |
|
|
Isa is the Arabic name for Jesus, and his return is considered the third major sign of the last days (the second being the appearance of Jesus's nemesis Masih ad-Dajjal). Although Muhammad is the preeminent prophet in Islam, Jesus is mentioned in the Quran, and so is Idris (Enoch), who is said not to have died but to have been raised up by God. Thus, in accordance with post-Quranic hadith, Jesus conceivably will return to Earth as a just judge before the Day of Judgment.
Hadith reference both the Mahdi and Isa simultaneously and the return of the Mahdi will coincide with the return of Isa, who will descend from the heavens in al-Quds at dawn. The two will meet, and the Mahdi will lead the people in fajr prayer. After the prayer, they will open a gate to the west and encounter Masih ad-Dajjal. After the defeat of ad-Dajjal, Isa will lead a peaceful forty-year reign until his death. He will be buried in a tomb beside Muhammad in Medina. Though the two certainly differ regarding their role and persona in Islamic eschatology, the figures of the Mahdi and Isa are ultimately inseparable, according to Muhammad. Though Isa is said to descend upon the world once again, the Mahdi will already be present.
- What will be your reaction when the son of Mary (Jesus) descends and your Imam is from among yourselves? (Sahih Muslim, bab nuzul 'isa, Vol. 2; Sahih Bukhari, kitab bad' al-khalq wa nuzul 'isa, Vol. 4)
Resurrection and final judgement
The resurrection and final judgement are fundamental beliefs in Islam. According to the Quran, without them, the creation of humanity would be in vain. Thus the Day of Judgment, al-Qiyāmah, (also known as the Day of Reckoning or Resurrection, the Last Day, or the Hour) is one of the six articles of faith in Sunni Islam, and one of seven in Shia Islam. It is believed in Islam that the Qur'an states Allah will resurrect everyone from their graves on the day of judgement. It is believed that the time is coming and that there shall be no doubt that Allah will do as promised. Just as Allah created the people, they will be brought back to the same form. Allah will double the deeds of his most faithful servants.
Major events
Kaaba destruction and the beast of the earth
Before doomsday, an Abyssinian, with short legs, will attack Mecca and destroy the Kaaba. Another sign is the appearance of the da'ba-tul-ard, or the Beast of the Earth.
The entire world will be engulfed by dukhan or smoke, for forty days, and there will be three huge earthquakes. The Quran will be taken to heaven and even the huffaz will not recall its verses. Finally, a pleasant breeze will blow that shall cause all believers to die, but infidels and sinners will remain alive. A fire will start, from Hadramawt in Yemen, that will gather all the people of the world in the land of Mahshar, and al-Qiyamah will commence.
Resurrection of the dead
In the Quran, barzakh (Arabic: برزخ) is the intermediate state for the soul, until the day of resurrection.
The eighth sign is a breeze bearing a pleasant scent, which will emanate from Yemen, causing the awliya, sulaha and the pious to die peacefully once they inhale it.
The ninth sign is the rising of the sun from the west after a long night. After midday, the sun will set again. According to hadith:
Abu Hurayrah states that the Messenger of God (saw) said, "The Hour will not be established until the sun rises from the West and when the people see it they will have faith. But that will be (the time) when believing of the soul, that will have not believed before that time, will not benefit it.
— Ibn Maja, as-Sunan, vol. 2 p 1352-53
The final signs will be nafkhatu'l-ula, when a trumpet will be sounded for the first time, and which will result in the death of the remaining sinners. Then there will be a period of forty years, after which the eleventh sign is the sounding of a second trumpet to signal the resurrection as ba'as ba'da'l-mawt. As written in the Quran:
The Trumpet will (just) be sounded, when all that are in the heavens and on earth will swoon, except such as it will please God (to exempt). Then will a second one be sounded, when, behold, they will be standing and looking on!
All will be naked and running to the Place of Gathering, while the enemies of God will be travelling on their faces with their legs upright. Finally, there will be no more injustice:
Surely God does not do injustice to the weight of an atom, and if it is a good deed He multiplies it and gives from Himself a great reward.
— Sura 4 An-Nisa, ayah 40
Separation of the righteous and the damned
At divine judgment, each person's Book of Deeds will be read, in which "every small and great thing is recorded," but with actions before adolescence omitted. Records shall be given with the right hand if they are good, and the left if they are evil. Even the smallest acts will not be ignored:
Then shall anyone who has done an atom's weight of good, see it!
And anyone who has done an atom's weight of evil, shall see it.— Quran, Sura 99 Az-Zalzala, ayat 7-8
This will be followed by perfect, divine, and merciful justice. The age of the hereafter, or the rest of eternity, is the final stage after the Day of Judgment, when all will receive their judgment from God.
Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabians [before Prophet Muhammad] – those [among them] who believed in God and the Last Day and did righteousness – will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve.
— Qur'an, Sura 2 Al-Baqara, ayah 62
The dead will stand in a grand assembly, awaiting a scroll detailing their righteous deeds, sinful acts, and ultimate judgment. Muhammad will be the first to be resurrected. According to ancient belief, God will descend to Mount Moriah, where he will judge souls. The complex of the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem, built under the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705), might thus be interpreted as a reminder of the approaching Last Judgement.
If one did good deeds, one would go to Jannah, and if unrighteous, would go to Jahannam. Punishments will include adhab, or severe pain, and khizy or shame. There will also be a punishment of the grave (for those who disbelieved) between death and the resurrection.
Resurrection theories
Although Islamic philosophers and scholars were in general agreement on a bodily resurrection after death, interpretations differ in regard to the specifications of bodily resurrection. Some of the theories are the following:
- The return to the same material body, someone had during lifetime, that will be restored.
- Conjunction of the soul with a Mithali body, which is congenial to the worlds of Barzakh and the Akhirah.
- Resurrection with a Hurqaliyati body, accordingly a second invisible body, that survives death.
Eschatological views in the early Muslim period
One of the primary beliefs pertaining to Islamic eschatology during the Early Muslim Period was that all humans could receive God's mercy and were worthy of salvation. These early depictions even show how small, insignificant deeds were enough to warrant mercy. Most early depictions of the end of days depict only those who reject Tawhid, the concept of monotheism, are subject to eternal punishment. However, everybody is held responsible for their own actions. Concepts of rewards and punishments were seen as beyond this world, a view that is also held today.
Limbo Theory of Islam
In terms of classical Islam, the Limbo Theory of Islam, as described by Jane Smith and Yvonne Haddad, implies that some individuals are not immediately sent to the afterlife, but are held in a state of limbo. The fate awaiting all people after their death is either the Gardens, heaven, or the Fire, hell. Traditional interpretations agree that, at minimum, these are two of the possible fates that await the dead. However, some have interpreted 7:46, "And there will be a veil between them. And upon the Heights are men who know all by their marks. They will call out to the inhabitants of the Garden, 'peace be upon you!' They will not have entered it, though they hope". Some have taken the mention of this veil between heaven and hell as an allusion to there being individuals who are not immediately sent to their ultimate destination.
The Current Existence of the Afterlife
There was considerable debate regarding whether heaven and hell exists at the current moment. The Mu'tazila argued that heaven and hell both cannot exist until the trumpet blasts that bring in the end times occurs, as the Quran states that once the trumpet sounds, all except God will be destroyed. However, the Ash'ariya argued that although the trumpet's sounding will precede all being destroyed, creation was a constant process. Furthermore, as Adam and Eve once resided in the Garden of Eden, the garden already exists. Also, hadith reports pertaining to the Night Journey state that Muhammad saw visions of both destinations and creatures inhabiting it. Thus, heaven and hell are usually regarded as coexisting with the current world.
The Concept of Eternity
In Classical Islam, there was a consensus among the theological community regarding the finality of the Gardens; faithful servants of God would find themselves in this heaven for eternity. However, some practitioners in the early Muslim community held a concept that stated that hell may not be eternal in and of itself. These views were based upon interpretations that viewed the upper levels of Hell as only lasting for as long as God deemed necessary. Once Muslims had their sins purged, these levels would be closed. These interpretations are centered on verses 11:106-107 in the Quran, stating, "As for those who are wretched, they shall be in the Fire, wherein there shall be for them groaning and wailing, abiding therein for so long as the heavens and the earth endure, save as thy Lord wills. Surely thy Lord does whatsoever He wills". To this end, the Quran itself gives a conflicting account of Hell, stating that Hell will endure as long as Heaven will, which has been established as eternal, but also the Quran maintains the possibility that God may yet commute a sentence to Hell. In a sense, these levels of Hell were interpreted to have a similar function as Purgatory in Christianity, with the exception to this comparison being that Hell in this context is for the punishment of the sinner's complete body, as opposed to the only the soul being punished in Purgatory. Arguments questioning the permanence of Hell take the view that Hell is not necessarily solely there to punish the evil, but to purify their souls. To clarify, the Garden is the reward while the Fire is for purification.
Gender and Islamic Eschatology
Eschatological beliefs in Islam do not tend to distinguish the afterlife on the basis of gender. Amina Wadud discusses Hell and Paradise in her book "Qur'an and Woman" very briefly. Wadud mentions that the Qur'an does not mention any specific gender when talking about Hell. All genders have an equal chance and consequence to experience hell and one is not over the other. The Qur'an 43:74-76 states that "the guilty are immortal in hell's torment," not he or she. It is directed to the individual and "the basis of faith and deeds," not gender. This is consistent in the Qur'an. Amina Wadud goes on to discuss paradise, and how the Quran describes it with such detail in order to "entice" the readers and make it sound pleasing. Wadud states what the Quran says about good earthly things, and eternal things which includes women. 3:14-15 states "Beautiful of mankind is love of the joys (that come) from women and offspring..."
Predestination
Traditional Islam teaches predestination for both good and evil, and that everything that has happened and will happen has already been determined. Free will and predestination have been discussed by many Muslim theologians; but the believers in free will, also known as al-qadariyya, have been overruled. Muhammad expressed predestination multiple times during his mission. Death is also seen as a homecoming. When people visit tombs, they are having a specific spiritual routine. The correct way to visit someones tomb is to recite parts of the Quran and pray for the deceased.
The fate of non-Muslims
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali categorized non-Muslims into three categories:
- 1. People who never heard of the message, who live in far away lands, such as the Byzantines ("Romans".) These will be forgiven.
- 2. People who were exposed to a distorted understanding of Islam and have no recourse to correct that information. These too will be forgiven.
- 3. People who heard of Islam because they live in neighboring lands and mix with Muslims. These have no hope of salvation.
Although many argue that anybody who thinks logically would eventually find that there is only one true, all-powerful God, however, others argue that if one has never received the message, they are not liable for not following it. This debate has been going on for centuries, however several Muslim theologicians agree that Islam is the only path, no other religion, even the other Abrahamic faiths, are proper paths to salvation. Although the Quran acknowledges the Bible as gospel, rejecting Muhammad and his message is seen as a rejection of salvation by them.
The fate of Jews
The Quran makes a variety of statements on the state of the Jewish community, praising their dedication to monotheism in one line and criticizing their rejection of Muhammad the next. An example of a line criticizing the Jews can be found at 5:60-61: "Say, 'Shall I inform you of something worse than that by way of recompense from God? Whomsoever God has cursed and upon whom is His Wrath, and among whom He has made some to be apes and swine, and who worship false deities, such are in a worse situation, and further astray from the right way.' When they come to you, they say, 'We believe.' But they are certainly entered with disbelief and they have certainly left with it, and God knows best what they were concealing. Thou seest many of them hastening to sin and enmity and consuming what is forbidden. Evil indeed is that which they were doing.". Another example is 5:64: "The Jews say, 'God's Hand is shackled.' Shackled are their hands, and they are cursed for what they say. Nay, but His two Hands are outstretched, He bestows as He wills. Surely that which has been sent down unto thee from thy Lord will increase many of them in rebellion and disbelief. And we cast enmity and hatred among them till the Day of Resurrection. As often they ignite a flame for war, God extinguishes it. They endeavor to work corruption upon the earth. And God loves not thee workers of corruption." However, the Qur'an also takes a more reconciliatory tone in other lines. An example of this is in 3:113-115: "They are not all alike. Among the People of the Book is an upright community who recite God's signs in the watches of the night, while they prostrate. They believe in God and the Last Day, enjoin right and forbid wrong, and hasten unto good deeds. And they are among the righteous. Whatsoever good they do, they will not be denied it. And God knows the reverent". After reconciling the different descriptions, one can gather the conclusion that some Jews are considered worthy of damnation, while others are righteous and capable of salvation. The transgressions of the "apes and pigs" are not indicative of the entire community.
Islamic eschatology in literature
Ibn al-Nafis wrote of Islamic eschatology in Theologus Autodidactus (circa AD 1270), where he used reason, science, and early Islamic philosophy to explain how he believed al-Qiyamah would unfold, told in the form of a theological fiction novel.
Imran Nazar Hosein wrote numerous books that deal with Islamic eschatology (Ilmu Ākhir al-Zamān – Knowledge of the later days), among which the most famous is Jerusalem in the Qur'an.
Islamic eschatology in 20th and 21st centuries
According to a scholar of Islamic eschatology, Jean-Pierre Filiu, popular Islamic pamphlets and tracts on the End Times have always been in circulation, but “until recently [their] impact on political and theological thinking was practically nil” among Sunnis.
In the early 1980s, when Abdullah Azzam, called on Muslims around the world to join the jihad in Afghanistan, he considered the fight "to be a sign that the end times were imminent". Also around that time, popular Islamic writers, such as Said Ayyub of Egypt, started blaming Islamic decline in the face of the Western world, not on lack of technology and development, but on the forces of the Dajjal.
Al-Qaeda used "apocalyptic predictions in both its internal and external messaging", and its use of "the name Khorasan, a region that includes part of Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan, and from which, it is prophesied, the Mahdi will emerge alongside an army bearing black flags", was thought to be a symbol of end times. ISIS has evoked "the apocalyptic tradition much more explicitly". Dabiq, Syria, is a town understood "in some versions" of the eschatological "narrative to be a possible location for the final apocalyptic battle. ISIS captured Dabiq and made it its capital. ISIS also declared its "intent to conquer Constantinople" which was also a part of end times prophesy.
Criticism
Mustafa Akyol criticises the current focus by the Muslim community on apocalypticism and the use of the forces of the Dajjal to explain stagnation in the Muslim world in the past two centuries vis-à-vis the West (and now East Asia). He argues that if supernatural evil is believed to be the cause of the problems of Muslims, then practical solutions such as "science, economic development and liberal democracy" will be ignored in favor of divine intervention. However, Islam is more practical than this, with Muhammad saying that if someone is planting a seed in the final hour of the Earth then they should continue to do so.
.jpg)
_LACMA_M.2008.40.98.8.jpg)
