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The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain.
It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional struggles
that occurred within the same period, and can be considered a
revolutionary civil war.
Independence was not an inevitable outcome, but events in Spain
directly impacted the outbreak of the armed insurgency in 1810 and its
course until 1821. Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in 1808 touched off a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule, since he had placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne after forcing the abdication of the Spanish monarch Charles IV. In Spain and many of its overseas possessions, the local response was to set up juntas ruling in the name of the Bourbon monarchy. Delegates in Spain and overseas territories met in Cádiz, Spain, still under Spanish control, as the Cortes of Cádiz, and drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812.
That constitution sought to create a new governing framework in the
absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch. It tried to accommodate the
aspirations of American-born Spaniards (criollos) for more local control and equal standing with Peninsular-born Spaniards, known locally as peninsulares.
This political process had far-reaching impacts in New Spain during the
independence war and beyond. Pre-existing cultural, religious, and
racial divides in Mexico played a major role in not only the development
of the independence movement but also the development of the conflict
as it progressed.
In September 1808, peninsular-born Spaniards in New Spain overthrew Viceroy José de Iturrigaray
(1803–08), who had been appointed before the French invasion. In 1810,
American-born Spaniards in favor of independence began plotting an
uprising against Spanish rule. It occurred when the parish priest of the
village of Dolores, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, issued the Cry of Dolores
on 16 September 1810. The Hidalgo revolt began the armed insurgency for
independence, lasting until 1821. The colonial regime did not expect
the size and duration of the insurgency, which spread from the Bajío region north of Mexico City to the Pacific and Gulf Coasts. After Napoleon's defeat, Ferdinand VII succeeded to the throne of the Spanish Empire in 1814 and promptly repudiated the constitution, and returned to absolutist rule.
When Spanish liberals overthrew the autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII in
1820, conservatives in New Spain saw political independence as a way to
maintain their position. Former royalists and old insurgents allied
under the Plan of Iguala and forged the Army of the Three Guarantees. The momentum of independence saw the collapse of the royal government in Mexico and the Treaty of Córdoba ended the conflict.
The mainland of New Spain was organized as the First Mexican Empire, led by Agustín de Iturbide. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy was overthrown and a federal republic was declared in 1823 and codified in the Constitution of 1824. After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836.
Prior challenges to crown rule
There is evidence that from an early period in post-conquest Mexican
history that some began articulating the idea of a separate Mexican
identity, though this was reserved to elite Creole circles. Despite that, challenges to Spanish imperial power before the insurgency for independence were rare, though some are of note.
One early challenge was by Spanish conquerors whose encomienda grants from the crown, rewards for conquest were to be ended following the deaths of the current grant holders. The encomenderos' conspiracy included Don Martín Cortés (son of Hernán Cortés). Martín Cortés was exiled, and other conspirators were executed.
Another challenge occurred in 1624, when elites ousted the reformist
viceroy who sought to break up rackets from which they profited and
curtail opulent displays of clerical power. Viceroy Marqués de Gelves was removed, following an urban riot of Mexico City commoners in 1624 stirred up by those elites.
The crowd was reported to have shouted, "Long live the King! Love live
Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic Lutheran [Viceroy
Gelves]! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack was against Gelves, seen as a
bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial
rule itself.
In 1642, there was also a brief conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth
century to unite American-born Spaniards, blacks, Indians and castas
against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man
seeking to bring about independendence called himself Don Guillén
Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman born William Lamport. Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition. There is a statue of Lamport in the mausoleum at the base of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City.
At the end of the seventeenth century, there was a major riot in
Mexico City, where a plebeian mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's
palace and the archbishop's residence. A painting by Cristóbal de Villalpando shows the damage of the 1692 tumulto.
Unlike the earlier riot in 1624 in which elites were involved and the
viceroy ousted, with no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692
riot was by plebeians alone and racially motivated. The rioters attacked
key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans. "Kill the
[American-born] Spaniards and the Gachupines [Iberian-born
Spaniards] who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to
finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without confession!
Is this not our land?" The viceroy attempted to address the cause of the riot, a hike in maize
prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented
class warfare that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment was swift
and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax
Hispanica."
Food shortages, due to a growing population and severe droughts
led to two food riots, one in 1785 and one in 1808. The first riot was
more severe than the second and both culminated in violence and anger at
officials of the colonial regime. However, there is no direct link
between these riots and the independence movement, although the
1808-1809 food shortage may have been a contributory factor for popular
resentment at the current political regime.
The various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era were often
to throw off crown rule, but local rebellions to redress perceived
wrongs not deal with by authorities. They were not a broad independence
movement as such. However, during the war of independence, issues at the
local level in rural areas constituted what some historians has called
"the other rebellion."
Before the events of 1808 upended the political situation in New Spain, there was an isolated and abortive 1799 Conspiracy of the Machetes by a small group in Mexico City seeking independence.
Age of Revolution, Spain and New Spain
The eighteenth and early nineteenth-century Age of Revolution was already underway when the 1808 Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. In 1776, the Anglo-American Thirteen Colonies and the American Revolution successfully gained their independence in 1783, with the help of both the Spanish Empire and Louis XVI's French monarchy. Louis XVI was toppled in the French Revolution
of 1789, with the aristocrats and the king himself losing his head in
revolutionary violence. The rise of military strongman Napoleon
Bonaparte brought some order within France, but the turmoil there set
the stage for the black slave revolt in the French sugar colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1791. The Haitian Revolution obliterated the slavocracy and gained independence for Haiti in 1804.
Political and economic instability
Tensions in New Spain were growing after the mid-eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms. With the reforms the crown sought to increase the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of the Catholic church,
rationalize and tighten control over the royal bureaucracy by placing
peninsular-born officials rather than American-born, and increase
revenues to the crown by a series of measures that undermined the
economic position of American-born elites. The reforms were an attempt
to revive the political and economic fortunes of the Spanish empire, but
many historians see the reforms as accelerating the breakdown of its
unity.
This involved often removing large quantities of wealth that had been
obtained in Mexico, before exporting to other parts of the empire to
fund the many wars the Spanish were fighting. The crown removed
privileges (fuero eclesiástico)
from ecclesiastics that had a disproportionate impact on American-born
priests, who filled the ranks of the lower clergy in New Spain. A number
of parish priests, most famously Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos, subsequently became involved in the insurgency for independence. When the crown expelled the Jesuits
from Spain and the overseas empire in 1767, it had a major impact on
elites in New Spain, whose Jesuit sons were sent into exile, and
cultural institutions, especially universities and colleges where they
taught were affected. In New Spain there were riots in protest of their
expulsion.
Colonial rule was not based on outright coercion, until the early
nineteenth century, since the crown did not have sufficient personnel
and firepower to enforce its rule. Rather, the crown's hegemony
and legitimacy to rule was accepted and ruled through institutions
acting as mediators between competing groups, many organized as
corporate entities. These were ecclesiastics, mining entrepreneurs,
elite merchants, as well as indigenous communities. The crown's creation
of a standing military in the 1780s began to shift the political
calculus since the crown could now use an armed force to impose rule. To
aid building a standing military, the crown created set of corporate
privileges (fuero)
for the military. For the first time, mixed-race castas and blacks had
access to corporate privileges, usually reserved for white elites.
Silver entrepreneurs and large-scale merchants also had access to
special privileges. Lucrative overseas trade was in the hands of family
firms based in Spain with ties to New Spain. Silver mining was the motor
of the economy of New Spain, but also fueled the economies of Spain and
the entire Atlantic world. That industry was in the hands of
peninsula-born mine owners and their elite merchant investors. The crown
imposed new regulations to boost their revenues from their overseas
territories, particularly the consolidation of loans held by the
Catholic Church. The 1804 Act of Consolidation called for borrowers to
immediately repay the entire principal of the loan rather than stretch
payments over decades. Borrowers were criollo land owners who could in
no way repay large loans on short notice. The impact threatened the
financial stability of elite Americans. The crown's forced extraction of
funds is considered by some a key factor in Creoles considering
political independence.
Religious, racial, and cultural tensions
Within the Spanish Empire there was an unofficial yet apparent racial
hierarchy which affected the social mobility of those not at the top of
society.
White, Spanish-born Peninsulares were at the top where many occupied
the highest levels of government. This was followed by Mexican-born pure
Spanish descendents, who also occupied most government positions, and
Creoles. Below this were indigenous groups, African-Mexicans and mixed
race Mexicans. Many Creole elites deeply resented the lack of social
mobility this brought as only Peninsular-born Spaniards could occupy the
highest levels of government. This contributed to their reasoning
behind backing the move for independence, to achieve power. They did not
wish to overthrow the status quo entirely, as this would threaten their
lucrative position in Mexican society. Instead, they wished to move up
the social ladder, unable to under the unspoken racial hierarchy of the
regime.
Religious tension is arguably one of the biggest contributions to tension before the French invasion of Spain in 1808. Many Creoles, Mexican Spaniards and the majority of indigenous, mixed and African groups in Mexico practised Mexican Catholicism while the ruling Peninsulares preferred Modern Catholicism.
Mexican or traditional catholicism often worshipped through the use of
relics, symbols and artifacts where they believe the Holy Spirit existed
in the physical form of the artefact, and was a mix of traditional
indigenous forms of worship and Catholicism. This contrasted with the
view of modern Catholicism that many Peninsulares shared, where God was
worshipped through divine artifacts and relics, but there was no
religious presence within the physical artifact.
Laws prohibiting Lay preachers, a major part of Mexican Catholicism,
from preaching and restrictions on villagers to engage in processions
around communal land to protect from unwanted spirits caused much outcry
and prompted a multitude of legal battles between indigenous groups and
the colonial regime through the separate indigenous courts. Not only
this, but new laws essentially forcing indigenous groups to learn
Spanish in schools and the taxation of Cofradias or Confraternities negatively affected the literacy and living standards in villages.
The ruling white Spanish elite and the majority of the country
had very different views not only in culture and religion but on the
role of government and social relations, with many elites viewing the
government as a tool for progressing their own power, while indigenous
groups saw the government as a communal vessel.
Leading up to the crisis in 1808 both Creole and Mexican-born
Spaniards, and indigenous and mixed groups had come to dislike the
colonial regime for different reasons.
French invasion of Spain and political crisis in New Spain, 1808–09
Cristóbal de Villalpando, 1695.
View of the Plaza Mayor of Mexico City, showing damage of the viceroy's palace by the 1692 rioters (top right).
The
Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only
Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. The viceroy was the "king’s
living image" in New Spain. In 1808 viceroy José de Iturrigaray (1803–1808) was in office when Napoleon's forces invaded Iberia and deposed the Spanish monarch Charles IV and Napoleon's brother Joseph
was declared the monarch. This turn of events set off a crisis of
legitimacy. Viceroy Iturrigaray had been appointed by Charles IV, so
his legitimacy to rule was not in doubt. In Mexico City, the city
council (ayuntamiento), a stronghold of American-born Spaniards,
began promoting ideas of autonomy for New Spain, and declaring New Spain
to be on an equal basis to Spain. Their proposal would have created a
legitimate, representative, and autonomous government in New Spain, but
not necessarily breaking from the Spanish Empire. Opposition to that
proposal came from conservative elements, including the peninsular-born
judges of the High Court (Audiencia), who voiced peninsulars’
interests. Iturrigaray attempted to find a compromise between the two
factions, but failed. Upon hearing the news of the Napoleonic invasion
some elites suspected that Iturrigaray intended to declare the
viceroyalty a sovereign state and perhaps establish himself as head of a
new state. With the support of the archbishop, Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont, landowner Gabriel de Yermo, the merchant guild of Mexico City (consulado),
and other members of elite society in the capital, Yermo led a coup
d'état against the viceroy. They stormed the Viceregal Palace in Mexico
City, the night of 15 September 1808, deposing the viceroy, and
imprisoning him along with some American-born Spanish members of the
city council. The peninsular rebels installed Pedro de Garibay
as viceroy. Since he was not a crown appointee, but rather the leader
of a rebel faction, creoles viewed him as an illegitimate representative
of the crown. The event radicalized both sides. For creoles, it was
clear that to gain power they needed to form conspiracies against
peninsular rule, and later they took up arms to achieve their goals.
Garibay was of advanced years and held office for just a year, replaced
by Archbishop Lizana y Beaumont, also holding office for about a year.
There was a precedent for the archbishop serving as viceroy, and given
that Garibay came to power by coup, the archbishop had more legitimacy
as ruler. Francisco Javier Venegas
was appointed viceroy and landed in Veracruz in August, reaching Mexico
City 14 September 1810. The next day, Hidalgo issued his call to arms in Dolores.
Immediately after the Mexico City coup ousting Iturrigaray, juntas in Spain created the Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies,
on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez. Its creation was a major step in the
political development in the Spanish empire, once it became clear that
there needed to be a central governing body rather than scattered juntas
of particular regions. Joseph I of Spain had invited representatives
from Spanish America to Bayonne,
France for a constitutional convention to discuss their status in the
new political order. It was a shrewd political move, but none accepted
the invitation. However, it became clear to the Supreme Central Junta
that keeping his overseas kingdoms loyal was imperative. Silver from New
Spain was vital for funding the war against France. The body expanded
to include membership from Spanish America, with the explicit
recognition that they were kingdoms in their own right and not colonies
of Spain. Elections were set to send delegates to Spain to participate
in the Supreme Central Junta.
Although in the Spanish Empire there was not an ongoing tradition of
high level representative government, found in Britain and British North
America, towns in Spain and New Spain had elected representative ruling
bodies, the cabildos or ayuntamientos,
which came to play an important political role when the legitimate
Spanish monarch was ousted in 1808. The successful 1809 elections in
Mexico City for delegates to be sent to Spain had some precedents.
The Hidalgo revolt (1810–1811)
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
is now considered the father of Mexican independence. His uprising on
16 September 1810 is considered the spark igniting the Mexican War of
Independence. He inspired tens of thousands of ordinary men to follow
him, but did not organize them into a disciplined fighting force or have
a broad military strategy, but he did want to destroy the old order.
Fellow insurgent leader and second in command, Ignacio Allende, said of Hidalgo, "Neither were his men amenable to discipline, nor was Hidalgo interested in regulations."
Hidalgo issued a few important decrees in the later stage of the
insurgency, but did not articulate a coherent set of goals much beyond
his initial call to arms denouncing bad government. Only following
Hidalgo's death in 1811 under the leadership of his former seminary
student, Father José María Morelos, was a document created that made explicit the goals of the insurgency, the Sentimientos de la Nación
("Sentiments of the Nation") (1813). One clear point was political
independence from Spain. Despite its having only a vague ideology,
Hidalgo's movement demonstrated the massive discontent and power of
Mexico's plebeians as an existential threat to the imperial regime. The
government focused its resources on defeating Hidalgo's insurgents
militarily and in tracking down and publicly executing its leadership.
But by then the insurgency had spread beyond its original region and
leadership.
Hidalgo was a learned priest who knew multiple languages, had a significant library, and was friends men who held Enlightenment views. He held the important position of rector of the Seminary of San Nicolás, but had run afoul of the Inquisition
for unorthodox beliefs and speaking against the monarchy. He had
already sired two daughters with Josefa Quintana. Following the death of
his brother Joaquín in 1803, Hidalgo, who was having money problems due
to debts on landed estates he owned, became curate of the poor parish
of Dolores. He became member of a group of well-educated American-born
Spaniards in Querétaro. They met under the guise of being a literary society, supported by the wife of crown official (corregidor) Miguel Domínguez, Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez,
known now as "La Corregidora." Instead the members discussed the
possibility of a popular rising, similar to one that already had
recently been quashed in Valladolid (now Morelia) in 1809 in the name of Ferdinand VII. Hidalgo was friends with Ignacio Allende,
a captain in the regiment of Dragoons in New Spain, who was also among
the conspirators. The "Conspiracy of Querétaro" began forming cells in
other Spanish cities in the north, including Celaya, Guanajuato, San Miguel el Grande, now named after Allende. Allende had served in a royal regiment during the rule of José de Iturrigaray,
who was overthrown in 1808 by peninsular Spaniards who considered him
too sympathetic to the grievances of American-born Spaniards. With the
ouster of the viceroy, Allende turned against the new regime and was
open to the conspiracy for independence. Hidalgo joined the conspiracy,
and with Allende vouching for him rose to being one of its leaders. Word
of the conspiracy got to crown officials, and the corregidor Domínguez
cracked down, but his wife Josefa was able to warn Allende who then
alerted Hidalgo. At this point there was no firm ideology or action
plan, but the tip-off galvanized Hidalgo to action. On Sunday, 16
September 1810 with his parishioners gathered for mass, Hidalgo issued
his call to arms, the Grito de Dolores.
It is unclear what Hidalgo actually said, since there are different
accounts. The one which became part of the official record of accusation
against Hidalgo was "Long live religion! Long live Our Most Holy Mother
of Guadalupe! Long live Fernando VII! Long live America and down with
bad government!"
From a small gathering at the Dolores church, other joined the rising
including workers on local landed estates, prisoners liberated from
jail, and a few members of a royal army regiment. Many estate workers'
weapons were agricultural tools now to be used against the regime. Some
were mounted and acted as a cavalry under the direction of their estate
foremen. Others were poorly armed Indians with bows and arrows.
The numbers joining the revolt rapidly swelled under Hidalgo's
leadership, they began moving beyond the village of Dolores. Despite
rising tensions following the events of 1808, the royal regime was
largely unprepared for the suddenness, size, and violence of the
movement.
1810–11 Towns on the Route of Hidalgo's campaign and the regions where the insurgency took hold.
The religious character of the movement was present from the
beginning, embodied in leadership of the priest, Hidalgo. The movement's
banner with image of the Virgin of Guadalupe,
seized by Hidalgo from the church at Atotonilco, was symbolically
important. The "dark virgin" was seen as a protector of dark-skinned
Mexicans, and now seen as well as a liberator. Many men in Hidalgo's forces put the image of Guadalupe on their hats.
Supporters of the imperial regime took as their patron the Virgin of
Remedios, so that religious symbolism was used by both insurgents and
royalists. There were a number of parish priests and other lower clergy in the insurgency, most prominently Hidalgo and José María Morelos,
but the Church hierarchy was flatly opposed. Insurgents were
excommunicated by the clergy and clerics preached sermons against the
insurgency.
They were not organized in any formal fashion, more of a mass
movement than an army. Hidalgo inspired his followers, but did not
organize or train them as a fighting force, nor impose order and
discipline on them. A few militia men in uniform joined Hidalgo's
movement and attempted to create some military order and discipline, but
they were few in number. The bulk of the royal army remained loyal to
the imperial regime, but Hidalgo's rising had caught them unprepared and
their response was delayed. Hidalgo's early victories gave the movement
momentum, but "the lack of weapons, trained soldiers, and good officers
meant that except in unusual circumstances the rebels could not field
armies capable of fighting conventional battles against the royalists."
The growing insurgent force marched through towns including San
Miguel el Grande and Celaya, where they met little resistance, and
gained more followers. When they reached the town of Guanajuato on 28 September, they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary, Alhóndiga de Granaditas.
Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and
sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the
battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 European and American
Spaniards, and marched on toward Mexico City.
The new viceroy quickly organized a defense, sending out the Spanish
general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and two cannons –
all that could be found on such short notice. The crown had established
a standing military in the late eighteenth century, granting
non-Spaniards who served the fuero militar, the only special
privileges for mixed-race men were eligible. Indians were excluded from
the military. Royal army troops of the professional army were
supplemented by local militias. The regime was determined to crush the
uprising and attempted to stifle malcontents who might be drawn to the
insurgency.
Ignacio López Rayón joined Hidalgo's forces whilst passing near Maravatío, Michoacan while en route to Mexico City and on 30 October, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces.
As the Hidalgo and his forces surrounded Mexico City, a group of 2,5000
royalists women joined together under Ana Iraeta de Mier, to create and
distribute pamphlets based on their loyalty towards Spain and help
fellow loyalist families.
Hidalgo's forces continued to fight and achieved victory. When the
cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated
to the city.
Despite apparently having the advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against
the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory,
has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally
believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in
Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have
ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error and his failure to act "was the beginning of his downfall." Hidalgo moved west and set up headquarters in Guadalajara,
where one of the worst incidents of violence against Spanish civilians
occurred, a month of massacres from 12 December 1810 (the Feast of the
Virgin of Guadalupe) to 13 January 1811. At his trial followoing his
capture later that year, Hidalgo admitted to ordering the murders. None
"were given a trial, nor was there any reason to do so, since he knew
perfectly well they were innocent." In Guadalajara, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe suddenly disappeared from insurgents' hats and there were many desertions.
The royalist forces, led by Félix María Calleja del Rey, were becoming more effective against disorganized and poorly armed of Hidalgo, defeating them at a bridge on the Calderón River, forcing the rebels to flee north towards the United States, perhaps hoping they would attain financial and military support. They were intercepted by Ignacio Elizondo, who pretended to join the fleeing insurgent forces. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján (Norias de Baján).
When the insurgents adopted the tactics of guerrilla warfare and
operated where it was effective, such as in the hot country of southern
Mexico, they were able to undermine the royalist army. Around Guanajuato, regional insurgent leader Albino García [es] for a time successfully combined insurgency with banditry. With the capture of Hidalgo and the creole leadership in the north, this phase of the insurgency was at an end.
The captured rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo,
who was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende,
Jiménez, and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a
sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the Inquisition.
He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and
executed on 30 July 1811. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and
Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the Alhóndiga
de Granaditas of Guanajuato as a grim warning to those who dared follow
in their footsteps.
Insurgency in the South under Morelos, 1811–1815
Official seal of the Supreme Junta
Congress of Chilpancingo
the day of the signing of Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence
of Northern America. Morelos is standing at far right, with the white
kerchief
Warfare in the northern Bajío region waned after the capture and
execution of the insurgency's creole leadership, but the insurgency had
already spread to other more southern regions, to the towns of
Zitácuaro, Cuautla, Antequera (now Oaxaca) towns where a new leadership
had emerged. Priests José María Morelos and Mariano Matamoros, as well as Vicente Guerrero, Guadalupe Victoria, and Ignacio López Rayón
carried on the insurgency on a different basis, organizing their
forces, using guerrilla tactics, and importantly for the insurgency,
creating organizations and creating written documents that articulated
the insurgents' goals.
Following the execution of Hidalgo and other insurgents,
leadership of the remaining insurgent movement initially coalesced under
Ignacio López Rayón, a civilian lawyer and businessman. He had been stationed in Saltillo,
Coahuila with 3,500 men and 22 cannons. When he heard of the capture of
the insurgent leaders, he fled south on 26 March 1811 to continue the
fight. He subsequently fought the Spanish in the battles of Puerto de Piñones, Zacatecas, El Maguey, and Zitácuaro.
In an important step, Rayón organized the Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América (Supreme National Governing Junta of America), which claimed legitimacy to lead the insurgency. Rayón articulated Elementos constitucionales, which states that "Sovereignty arises directly from the people, resides in the person of Ferdinand VII, and is exercised by the Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América. The Supreme Junta generated a flood of detailed regulations and orders. On the ground, Father José María Morelos
pursued successful military engagements, accepting the authority of the
Supreme Junta. After winning victories and taking the port of Acapulco, then the towns Tixtla, Izúcar, and Taxco, Morelos was besieged for 72 days by royalist troops under Calleja at Cuautla.
The Junta failed to send aid to Morelos. Morelos's troops held out and
broke out of the siege, going on to take Antequera, (now Oaxaca).
The relationship between Morelos and the Junta soured, with Morelos
complaining, "Your disagreements have been of service to the enemy."
Morelos was a real contrast to Hidalgo, although both were rebel
priests. Both had sympathy for Mexico's downtrodden, but Morelos was of
mixed-race while Hidalgo was an American-born Spaniard, so Morelos
experientially understood racial discrimination in the colonial order.
On more practical grounds, Morelos built an organized and disciplined
military force, while Hidalgo's followers lacked arms, training, or
discipline, an effective force that the royal army took seriously.
Potentially Morelos could have taken the colony's second largest city, Puebla de los Angeles,
situated halfway between the port of Veracruz and the capital, Mexico
City. To avert that strategic disaster, which would have left the
capital cut off from its main port, viceroy Venegas transferred Calleja
from the Bajío to deal with Morelos's forces. Morelos's forces moved
south and took Oaxaca, allowing him to control most of the southern
region. During this period, the insurgency had reason for optimism and
formulated documents declaring independence and articulating a vision
for a sovereign Mexico.
Morelos was not ambitious to become leader of the insurgency, but
it was clear that he was recognized by insurgents as its supreme
military commander. He moved swiftly and decisively, stripping Rayón of
power, dissolving the Supreme Junta, and in 1813, Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo,
also known as the Congress of Anáhuac. The congress brought together
representatives of the insurgency together. Morelos formulated his
Sentiments of the Nation, addressed to the congress. In point 1, he
clearly and flatly states that "America is free and independent of
Spain." On 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first
official document of independence, known as the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America.
In addition to declaring independence from Spain, the Morelos called
for the establishment of Catholicism as the only religion (but with
certain restrictions), the abolition of slavery and racial distinctions
between and of all other nations," going on in point 5 to say,
"sovereignty springs directly from the People." His second point makes
the "Catholic Religion" the only one permissible, and that "Catholic
dogma shall be sustained by the Church hierarchy" (point 4). The
importance of Catholicism is further emphasized to mandate December 12,
the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe, as a day to honor her. A provision
of key importance to dark-skinned plebeians (point 15) is "That slavery
is proscribed forever, , as well as the distinctions of caste [race],
so that all shall be equal; and that the only distinction between one
American and another shall be that between vice and virtue.". Also
important for Morelos's vision of the new nation was equality before the
law (point 13), rather than maintaining special courts and privileges (fueros) to particular groups, such as churchmen, miners, merchants, and the military.
The Congress elected Morelos as the head of the executive branch
of government, as well as supreme commander of the insurgency,
coordinating its far-flung components.
The formal statement by the Congress of Chilpancingo, the Solemn Act of
the Declaration of Independence, is an important formal document in
Mexican history, since it declares Mexico an independent nation and lays
out its powers as a sovereign state to make war and peace, to appoint
ambassadors, and to have standing with the Papacy, rather than
indirectly through the Spanish monarch. The document enshrines Roman
Catholicism the sole religion.
Calleja
restructured the royal army in an attempt to crush the insurgency,
creating commands in Puebla, Valladolid (now Morelia), Guanajuato, and
Nueva Galicia, with experienced peninsular military officers to lead
them. American-born officer Agustín de Iturbide was part of this royalist leadership. Brigadier Ciriaco de Llano captured and executed Mariano Matamoros,
an effective insurgent. After the dissolution of the Congress of
Chilpancingo, Morelos was captured 5 November 1815, interrogated, was
tried and executed by firing squad. With his death, conventional warfare
ended and guerrilla warfare continued uninterrupted.
Insurgency under Vicente Guerrero, 1815–1820
With the execution of Morelos in 1815, Vicente Guerrero emerged as
the most important leader of the insurgency. From 1815 to 1821 most of
the fighting for independence from Spain was by guerrilla forces in the tierra caliente (hot country) of southern Mexico and to a certain extent in northern New Spain. In 1816, Francisco Javier Mina, a Spanish military leader who had fought against Ferdinand VII, joined the independence movement. Mina and 300 men landed at Rio Santander (Tamaulipas) in April, in 1817 and fought for seven months until his capture by royalist forces in November 1817.
Two insurgent leaders arose: Guadalupe Victoria (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in the village of Tixla, in what is now the state of Guerrero.
Both gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the
situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to
every rebel who would lay down his arms. Many did lay down their arms
and received pardons, but when the opportunity arose, they often
returned to the insurgency. The royal army controlled the major cities
and towns, but whole swaths of the countryside were not pacified. From
1816 to 1820, the insurgency was stalemated, but not stamped out.
Royalist military officer, Antonio López de Santa Anna
led amnestied former insurgents, pursuing insurgent leader Guadalupe
Victoria. Insurgents attacked key roads, vital for commerce and imperial
control, such that the crown sent a commander from Peru, Brigadier
Fernando Miyares y Mancebo, to build a fortified road between the port
of Veracruz and Jalapa, the first major stopping point on the way to
Mexico City. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos.
The period 1816–20 is often considered a period of military
stalemate, unable to delivery a knockout blow. Insurgents often settled
into guerrilla warfare with some banditry, while royalist forces became
increasingly demoralized. Spain sent insufficient reinforcements,
although a number of senior officers arrived. By 1814, the Peninsular
War against Napoleon was won and Ferdinand VII
became the monarch, initially as a constitutional ruler under the
Spanish constitution of 1812, but once in power, reneged on promises to
have constitutional limits on his power. Crown resources did not go
toward funding the war against the insurgents, so that many
expeditionary soldiers were not paid and left to their own devices in
territory largely controlled by insurgents. Rather than risk life and
limb fighting insurgents, they avoided risky operations and stayed close
to fortified garrisons. Since money to pay and supply soldiers was not
forthcoming from the crown, royal forces pressed local populations for
supplies. As for high officers, many saw the hopelessness of the
situation and decided to make the best of it by creating what one
historian has called "veritable satrapies," becoming wealthy from
confiscated insurgent properties, and taxing local merchants.
In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now Morelia),
had gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels
during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church
hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative creole values; he was
devoutly religious and committed to the defense of property rights and
social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to
gain wealth.
Guerrero, Iturbide, and the Plan of Iguala
Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition in 1820 coincided with
a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand
VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to
suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against
the autocratic monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to
reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812
that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal
charter reached New Spain, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the
status quo and a catalyst to rouse the creole elites to gain control of
Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in
the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it
was an about-face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant
insurgency.
The royalist army was demoralized and the insurgents were unable
to oust them. With the re-imposition of the Spanish Constitution, the
relationship between newly elected town councils (ayuntamientos)
and the military meant that councils could put limits on taxation and
many voted to cease exacting taxes to support the royalist army.
Commanders lost their financial support and could no longer compel men
to join militias. Militias were demobilized and men who had served
outside of their native areas went home. The insurgents no longer felt
the continuous pressure of the royalist military. Militia men abandoned
areas where insurgents were active.
A representation of mestizos in a "Caste Painting" from the colonial era.
With the situation changed in part because of the Spanish
Constitution, Guerrero realized that creole elites might move toward
independence and exclude the insurgents. For that reason, his reaching
an accommodation with the royalist army became a pragmatic move. From
the royalist point of view, forging an alliance with their former foes
created a way forward to independence. If creoles had declared
independence for their own political purposes without coming to terms
with the insurgency in the south, then an independent Mexico would have
to contend with rebels who could threaten a new nation. Iturbide
initiated contact with Guerrero in January 1821, indicating he was
weighing whether to abandon the royalist cause. Guerrero was receptive
to listening to Iturbide's vague proposal, but was not going to commit
without further clarification. Iturbide replied to Guerrero's demand for
clarity, saying that he had a plan for a constitution, one apparently
based on the 1812 Spanish liberal constitution. Guerrero responded that
the failure of that constitution to address the grievances of many in
New Spain, and particularly objected to that constitution's exclusion of
Afro-Mexicans from citizenship, while according it to European whites, Indians, and mestizos.
The question of equality for all races was a key matter for
Guerrero and other insurgents, many of whom were had African ancestry.
Iturbide accepted that important change. The two men negotiated about
how the merging of the old insurgent forces and the former royalist army
would occur. Iturbide wrote the final draft of the Plan of Iguala, named for the place
where it was proclaimed on 24 February 1821. Iturbide proclaimed three
principles, or "guarantees", for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico
would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another
Bourbon prince or some other conservative European prince; creoles would
be given equal rights and privileges to peninsulares; and the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land.
To reach an accord that both sides would accept, the plan
explicitly laid out the terms of equality. For people of mixed race,
point 12 made explicit "All inhabitants of New Spain, without
distinction to their being Europeans, Africans, or Indians, are citizens
of this Monarchy with the option to seek all employment according to
their merits and virtues." For European whites, their privileged place
in Mexico was to be maintained, guaranteeing their place in existing
positions in government. "All branches of the government service will
remain without alteration, and that all those presently employed in
politics, the church, civilian business, or the military will retain the
same positions held at present." Racial designations of Mexicans and
distinctions between creole and peninsular Spaniards were abolished.
After convincing his troops to accept the Plan of Iguala,
Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this
conservative independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees,
was placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the plan. The plan was
so broadly based that it appealed both patriots and loyalists. The goal
of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together
most factions.
To symbolize these three guarantees of unity, religion, and
independence, Iturbide adopted a green, white, and red flag; these
colors are still used in the modern Mexican flag.
Although the alliance of Iturbide and Guerrero resulted in the
Plan of Iguala, there was not universal acclaim of the accord. A number
of important insurgents, including Juan Álvarez, Pedro Ascensio [es] and Gordiano Guzmán [es]
rejected it. Guzmán articulated his objection to the plan, saying that
it guaranteed the privileges of the elites, welcomed opportunists who
supported independence late in the struggle, and cast doubt on the
clause that was to guarantee racial equality. He focused on the final
words that guaranteed rights "according to their merits and virtues".
Álvarez, Ascencio and Guzmán declined to join the Army of the Three
Guarantees, the military force created by Iturbide and Guerrero, but did
continue to fight the royalists.
Collapse of imperial rule and independence
Iturbide persuaded royalist officers to change sides and support
independence as well as the mixed-race old insurgent forces. For some
royalist commanders, their forces simply left, some of them amnestied
former insurgents. The high military command in Mexico City deposed the
viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca in July 1821, replacing him with an interim viceroy, royalist general Francisco Novella. By the time that the new viceroy Juan O'Donojú,
practically the whole country supported the Plan of Iguala. Most
soldiers had defected to Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees and the
Spanish cause was lost. On 24 August 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown, including the new viceroy Juan O'Donojú and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba,
which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala.
O'Donojú then resigned as viceroy. The Spanish government denied that
O'Donojú had the authority to sign the treaty, but events on the ground
saw Iturbide and the Army of Three Guarantees march into Mexico City in
triumph on 27 September 1821. The next day, the Mexican independence was
proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire.
The Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba had rapidly brought about
an alliance of insurgents and former royalists turned autonomists
resulting in the rapid achievement of independence virtually without
further military conflict. Once independence was achieved, the fissures
between different interests rapidly re-emerged.
Creation of the First Mexican Empire
On 27 September 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico
City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the
Mexican Empire, as New Spain was henceforth to be called. The Treaty of Córdoba was not ratified by the Spanish Cortes.
Iturbide included a special clause in the treaty that left open the
possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress
if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican
crown. Half of the new government employees appointed were Iturbide's
followers.
On the night of 18 May 1822, a mass demonstration led by the
Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched
through the streets and demanded their commander-in-chief to accept the
throne. The following day, the Congress declared Iturbide Emperor of Mexico. On 31 October 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta.
Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico
Despite the creation of the Mexican nation, the Spanish still managed to hold onto a port in Veracruz
that Mexico did not get control of until 23 November 1825. Spanish
attempts to re-establish control over Mexico culminated in the 1829 Battle of Tampico, during which a Spanish invasion force was surrounded in Tampico and forced to surrender.
On 28 December 1836, Spain recognized the independence of Mexico under the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty, signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner Miguel Santa María and the Spanish state minister José María Calatrava. Mexico was the first former colony whose independence was recognized by Spain; the second was Ecuador on 16 February 1840.
Legacy
Flag of the
Mexican Empire
of Iturbide, the template for the modern Mexican flag with the eagle
perched on a cactus. The crown on the eagle's head symbolizes monarchy
in Mexico.
In 1910, as part of the celebrations marking the centennial of the Hidalgo revolt of 1810, President Porfirio Díaz inaugurated the monument to Mexico's political separation from Spain, the Angel of Independence on Avenida Reforma.
The creation of this architectural monument is part of the long process
of the construction of historical memory of Mexican independence.
Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the
marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The
choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who
achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created Emperor of Mexico.
His short-lived rule from 1821 to 1823 ended when he was forced by the
military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which
made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees
marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those
who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were
marked on 27 September. Following his ouster, there were calls to
commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States
celebrated in grand style its Independence Day on 4 July. The creation
of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the Junta Patriótica,
organized celebrations of both 16 September, to commemorate Hidalgo's
grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and 27 September, to
celebrate actual political independence.
During the Díaz regime
(1876–1911), the president's birthday coincided with the 15/16
September celebration of independence. The largest celebrations took
place and continue to do so in the capital's main square, the zócalo, with the pealing of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City's
bells. In the 1880s, government officials attempted to move the bell
that Hidalgo rang in 1810 to gather parishioners in Dolores for what
became his famous "grito". Initially the pueblo's officials said the
bell no longer existed, but in 1896, the bell, known as the Bell of San
José, was taken to the capital. It was renamed the "Bell of
Independence" and ritually rung by Díaz. It is now an integral part of
Independence Day festivities.
There are plans for the commemoration of independence in 2021, as well as the establishment of the Mexican republic in 2024. The 2021 event is termed the Consummation of Independence.
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