The park derives its name from the Great Basin, the dry and mountainous region between the Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch Mountains. Topographically, this area is known as the Basin and Range Province. The park is located about 290 miles (470 km) north of Las Vegas and protects 77,180 acres (31,230 ha).
President Warren G. Harding
created Lehman Caves National Monument by presidential proclamation on
January 24, 1922. The monument was redesignated a national park on
October 27, 1986. A number of developed campsites are within the park,
as well as excellent backcountry camping opportunities. The Highland Ridge Wilderness
lies adjacent to Great Basin National Park. These two protected areas
provide contiguous wildlife habitat and protection to 227.8 square miles
(590.0 km2) of eastern Nevada's basin lands.
Natural history
Flora
Conifers thrive at middle elevations of Wheeler Peak.
Eleven species of conifer trees and over 800 species of plants are
found in Great Basin National Park and the neighboring valleys.
The oldest nonclonal organism ever discovered, a Great Basin bristlecone pine
tree at least 5,000 years old, grew at the treeline near Wheeler Peak
in the national park. It was cut down in 1964 by a graduate student and
U.S. Forest Service personnel for research purposes. It was given the
nickname Prometheus, after the mythological figure who stole fire from the gods and gave it to man.
Fauna
Sixty-one species of mammals,
18 species of reptiles, 238 species of birds, two species of
amphibians, and eight species of fish are in Great Basin National Park
and the neighboring valleys.
Mammals
Townsend's big-eared bat
An abundance of wildlife has taken advantage of the habitat zones in Great Basin National Park. Jackrabbits, pygmy rabbits, mountain cottontails, ground squirrels, chipmunks, and various mice live in the low-elevation sagebrush desert. Pronghorns, coyotes, kit foxes, and badgers are less common inhabitants.
The Bonneville cutthroat trout
is the only fish native to Great Basin National Park. It arrived in the
mountain waters naturally and was eventually isolated by changing
climatic conditions. Other trout species, such as Lahontan cutthroat trout, rainbow, brook, and brown trout, were stocked in the lakes and streams of the South Snake Range until the park's incorporation in 1986.
Many of the rocks formed during the Cambrian, when the region lay at the edge of a continental landmass called Laurentia. These rocks include the Cambrian strata. As the Paleozoic era progressed, several intensified geologic events occurred, including repeated episodes of faulting, and in turn, orogenies which involved upward lifting of a metamorphic core complex, creating mafic and rhyolitic dikes and sills.
Extensive volcanism also occurred during the middle to late
Cambrian, contributing further to the uplift of the area. This also
contributed to a second round of block faulting, in which conglomerates, ash flows, and tuffs accumulated in the Snake Range.
Wheeler Peak
Both continuous and intermittent fault movements also occurred, with
individual fault surfaces on both sides of the Snake Range thinning and
stretching.
Glaciation
Glaciation, mostly during a series of ice ages in the Pleistocene, heavily eroded the peaks of the Snake Range, leaving canyon walls, U-shaped valleys, cirques, and moraines throughout the range.
Lehman Caves
The Lehman Cave system began forming around 550 million years ago
(during the Cambrian), while it was still submerged in a relatively
warm, shallow ocean. The caves are made up of a marble and limestone
solution, for the most part, that forms the many cave decorations
throughout the caverns.
The cave system became much deeper during the Pleistocene, when a
prolonged and increased flow of water eroded through the cave's
fracturing bedrock. Eventually, the water level dropped, leaving glare
rooms and cavities in the rock, creating the depths of the Lehman Caves
system.
The "Cypress Swamp" along the tourist trail in Lehman Cave
The Lehman Caves were originally protected as a national monument in 1922, which was combined with the national park in 1986.
According to the National Park Service, the caves were, most likely, discovered by Absalom Lehman in 1885.
Several living creatures occupy the Lehman Caves. Bacteria are the most common. Crickets, spiders, pseudoscorpions, mites, and springtails
may live their full lifecycles in the cave. They are dependent on
organic material packed in by other animals or washed in from the
surface.
Other animals use the cave, but must leave to forage for food. These include chipmunks, mice, pack rats, and several species of bats. Only insectivorous
bats occur in the Great Basin. At least 10 species of bats have been
found in the vicinity of Great Basin National Park, including the Townsend's big-eared bat.
The park has 12 trails ranging from 0.3 to 13.1 miles (0.48 to 21.08 km).
Trails range from short nature trails at 6,825 feet (2,080 m) (Mountain
View Nature Trail), to the Wheeler summit trail starting at 10,160 feet
(3,097 m).
The Wheeler Summit trail is quite strenuous, and the altitude presents
significant hazards for unprepared or inexperienced hikers. Backcountry
routes are occasionally maintained throughout the more remote southern
portion of the park. A number of these trailheads are accessible by the
road that terminates at the primitive Shoshone campground.
Visitor centers
The Great Basin visitor center is located on Nevada State Route 487 in the town of Baker. The Lehman Caves visitor center is located on Nevada State Route 488, about 5.5 miles (8.9 km) from Baker, 1⁄2 mile (800 m) inside the park boundary. The Forgotten Winchester, a rifle manufactured in 1882 that was found leaning against a juniper tree in the park in 2014, is on display inside the Lehman Caves visitor center.
Both centers feature exhibits about the park's geology and natural and
cultural history, as well as theaters with orientation films.
The park received 168,028 visitors in 2017, and operated with a budget of $2.8 million.
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Great Basin National Park has a Cold Semi-Arid Climate (BSk). The plant hardiness zone at Lehman Caves Visitor Center is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of -3.8 °F (-19.9 °C).
The park lies in an arid region and receives very little rainfall
during most of the year. Most precipitation is winter snow or summer
thunderstorms. All precipitation in this region evaporates, sinks
underground, or flows into lakes — i.e., it is endorheic. No water reaches the ocean.
Winters are cool and summers are mild to hot. Weather can change
quickly, especially in the back country or on Wheeler Peak at high
elevations.
Lehman Caves maintain a fairly constant temperature of 50 °F (10 °C) with 90% humidity year round.
The climate varies throughout the park, depending on elevation and
location. The following data are for the Lehman Caves Visitor Center
only. Higher elevations are cooler and receive more precipitation,
whereas lower elevations are hotter and drier.
Glacier National Park is an American national park located in northwestern Montana, on the Canada–United States border, adjacent to the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. The park encompasses over 1 million acres (4,000 km2) and includes parts of two mountain ranges (sub-ranges of the Rocky Mountains), over 130 named lakes, more than 1,000 different species of plants, and hundreds of species of animals. This vast pristine ecosystem
is the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the "Crown of the
Continent Ecosystem," a region of protected land encompassing 16,000
square miles (41,000 km2).
The region that became Glacier National Park was first inhabited by Native Americans. Upon the arrival of European explorers, it was dominated by the Blackfeet in the east and the Flathead
in the western regions. Under pressure, the Blackfeet ceded the
mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal
government; it later became part of the park. Soon after the
establishment of the park on May 11, 1910, a number of hotels and
chalets were constructed by the Great Northern Railway. These historic hotels and chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks and a total of 350 locations are on the National Register of Historic Places. By 1932 work was completed on the Going-to-the-Sun Road, later designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, which provided greater accessibility for automobiles into the heart of the park.
The mountains of Glacier National Park began forming 170 million years ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata. Known as the Lewis Overthrust,
these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest
examples of early life fossils on Earth. The current shapes of the Lewis and Livingston
mountain ranges and positioning and size of the lakes show the telltale
evidence of massive glacial action, which carved U-shaped valleys and
left behind moraines which impounded water, creating lakes. Of the
estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in the mid-19th century
during the late Little Ice Age, only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010.
Scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all
the active glaciers may disappear by 2030 if current climate patterns
persist.
Glacier National Park has almost all its original native plant and animal species. Large mammals such as grizzly bears, moose, and mountain goats, as well as rare or endangered species like wolverines and Canadian lynxes,
inhabit the park. Hundreds of species of birds, more than a dozen fish
species, and a few reptile and amphibian species have been documented.
The park has numerous ecosystems ranging from prairie to tundra. The easternmost forests of western redcedar and hemlock
grow in the southwest portion of the park. Forest fires are common in
the park. There has been a fire every year of the park's existence
except 1964. 64 fires occurred in 1936, the most on record. In 2003, six fires burned approximately 136,000 acres (550 km2), more than 13% of the park.
According to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived
in the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with
lineage to current tribes were the Flathead (Salish) and Kootenai, Shoshone, and Cheyenne. The Blackfeet lived on the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as the Great Plains immediately to the east.
The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter
winds of the plains, allowing them to supplement their traditional bison
hunts with other game meat. Today, the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation
is located west and south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation
was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the
eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide. To the
Blackfeet, the mountains of this area, especially Chief Mountain and the region in the southeast at Two Medicine, were considered the "Backbone of the World" and were frequented during vision quests. In 1895 Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area, some 800,000 acres (3,200 km2), to the U.S. government for $1.5 million, with the understanding that they would maintain usage rights to the land for hunting as long as the ceded stripe will be public land of the United States. This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation.
Far away in
northwestern Montana, hidden from view by clustering mountain peaks,
lies an unmapped corner—the Crown of the Continent.
—George Bird Grinnell (1901)
While exploring the Marias River in 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within 50 miles (80 km) of the area that is now the park. A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area that later became the park. In 1885 George Bird Grinnell hired noted explorer (and later well regarded author) James Willard Schultz to guide him on a hunting expedition into what would later become the park.
After several more trips to the region, Grinnell became so inspired by
the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a
national park. In 1901 Grinnell wrote a description of the region in
which he referred to it as the "Crown of the Continent". His efforts to
protect the land make him the premier contributor to this cause. A few years after Grinnell first visited, Henry L. Stimson and two companions, including a Blackfoot, climbed the steep east face of Chief Mountain in 1892.
In 1891 the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at Marias Pass
5,213 feet (1,589 m), which is along the southern boundary of the park.
In an effort to stimulate use of the railroad, the Great Northern soon
advertised the splendors of the region to the public. The company
lobbied the United States Congress. In 1897 the park was designated as a forest preserve.
Under the forest designation, mining was still allowed but was not
commercially successful. Meanwhile, proponents of protecting the region
kept up their efforts. In 1910, under the influence of the Boone and Crockett Club, and spearheaded by George Bird Grinnell and Louis W. Hill, president of the railroad,
a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which designated the
region a national park. This bill was signed into law by President William Howard Taft in 1910. In 1910 Grinnell wrote, "This Park, the country owes to the Boone and Crockett Club,
whose members discovered the region, suggested it being set aside,
caused the bill to be introduced into congress and awakened interest in
it all over the country".
From May until August 1910, the forest reserve supervisor, Fremont
Nathan Haines, managed the park's resources as the first acting
superintendent. In August 1910, William Logan was appointed the park's
first superintendent. While the designation of the forest reserve
confirmed the traditional usage rights of the Blackfeet, the enabling
legislation of the national park does not mention the guarantees to the
Native Americans. It is the position of the United States government
that with the special designation as a National Park the mountains ceded
their multi-purpose public land status and the former rights
ceased to exist as it was confirmed by the Court of Claims in 1935. Some
Blackfeet held that their traditional usage rights still exist de jure. In the 1890s, armed standoffs were avoided narrowly several times.
The Great Northern Railway, under the supervision of president Louis W. Hill, built a number of hotels and chalets
throughout the park in the 1910s to promote tourism. These buildings,
constructed and operated by a Great Northern subsidiary called the Glacier Park Company,
were modeled on Swiss architecture as part of Hill's plan to portray
Glacier as "America's Switzerland". Hill was especially interested in
sponsoring artists to come to the park, building tourist lodges that
displayed their work. His hotels in the park never made a profit but
they attracted thousands of visitors who came via the Great Northern.
Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between the lodges or
utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to the Many Glacier area in the northeast.
The chalets, built between 1910 and 1913, included Belton, St. Mary, Going-to-the-Sun, Many Glacier, Two Medicine, Sperry, Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight Lake. The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge, adjacent to the park on its east side, and the Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of Swiftcurrent Lake.
Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of these buildings,
choosing each for their dramatic scenic backdrops and views. Another
developer, John Lewis, built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913–1914. The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and it was later renamed Lake McDonald Lodge.
Some of the chalets were in remote backcountry locations accessible
only by trail. Today, only Sperry, Granite Park, and Belton Chalets are
still in operation, while a building formerly belonging to Two Medicine
Chalet is now Two Medicine Store. The surviving chalet and hotel buildings within the park are now designated as National Historic Landmarks. In total, 350 buildings and structures within the park are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including ranger stations, backcountry patrol cabins, fire lookouts, and concession facilities. In 2017, Sperry Chalet closed early for the season due to the Sprague Fire
which subsequently burned the entire interior portions of the
structure, leaving only the stone exterior standing. Due to damage, the
chalet was closed indefinitely and while the exterior stonework was
stabilized in the fall of 2017. The rebuilding process was expected to last during the summers of 2018 and 2019, and is scheduled to reopen in July 2020.
After the park was well established and visitors began to rely more on automobiles, work was begun on the 53-mile (85 km) long Going-to-the-Sun Road,
completed in 1932. Also known simply as the Sun Road, the road bisects
the park and is the only route that ventures deep into the park, going
over the Continental Divide at Logan Pass,
6,646 feet (2,026 m) at the midway point. The Sun Road is also listed
on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1985 was designated a
National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. Another route, along the southern boundary between the park and National Forests, is US Route 2, which crosses the Continental Divide at Marias Pass and connects the towns of West Glacier and East Glacier.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal
relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942
in developing both Glacier National Park and Yellowstone National Park.
CCC projects included reforestation, campground development, trail
construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work.
The increase in motor vehicle traffic through the park during the 1930s
resulted in the construction of new concession facilities at Swiftcurrent and Rising Sun, both designed for automobile-based tourism. These early auto camps are now also listed on the National Register.
Glacier National Park is managed by the National Park Service, with the park's headquarters in West Glacier, Montana. Visitation to Glacier National Park averaged about 2.2 million visitors annually over the ten-year period from 2007 to 2016, though relatively few of those visitors ventured far from the roadways, hotels and campgrounds.
Glacier National Park finished with a budget of $13.803 million in 2016, with a planned budget of $13.777 million for 2017. In anticipation of the 100th anniversary of the park in 2010, major reconstruction of the Going-to-the-Sun Road was completed. The Federal Highway Administration managed the reconstruction project in cooperation with the National Park Service.
Some rehabilitation of major structures such as visitor centers and
historic hotels, as well as improvements in wastewater treatment
facilities and campgrounds, are expected to be completed by the
anniversary date. Also planned are fishery studies for Lake McDonald,
updates of the historical archives, and restoration of trails.
The mandate of the National Park Service is to "... preserve and protect natural and cultural resources". The Organic Act
of August 25, 1916 established the National Park Service as a federal
agency. One major section of the Act has often been summarized as the
"Mission", "... to promote and regulate the use of the ... national
parks ... which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and
historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the
enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave
them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." In keeping with this mandate, hunting is illegal in the park, as are mining, logging, and the removal of natural or cultural resources. Additionally, oil and gas exploration
and extraction are not permitted. These restrictions, however, caused a
lot of conflict with the adjoining Blackfeet Indian Reservation. When
they sold the land to the United States government, it was with the
stipulation of being able to maintain their usage rights of the area,
many of which (such as hunting) had come into conflict with these
regulations.
In 1974, a wilderness
study was submitted to Congress which identified 95% of the area of the
park as qualifying for wilderness designation. Unlike a few other
parks, Glacier National Park has yet to be protected as wilderness, but
National Park Service policy requires that identified areas listed in
the report be managed as wilderness until Congress renders a full
decision. Ninety-three percent of Glacier National Park is managed as wilderness, even though it has not been officially designated.
The park is bordered on the north by Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta, and the Flathead Provincial Forest and Akamina-Kishinena Provincial Park in British Columbia. To the west, the north fork of the Flathead River
forms the western boundary, while its middle fork is part of the
southern boundary. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation provides most of the
eastern boundary. The Lewis and Clark and the Flathead National Forests form the southern and western boundary. The remote Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex is located in the two forests immediately to the south.
The park contains a dozen large lakes and 700 smaller ones, but only 131 lakes have been named.
Lake McDonald on the western side of the park is the longest at 9.4
miles (15.1 km), the largest in area at 6,823 acres (27.61 km2), and the deepest at 464 feet (141 m). Numerous smaller lakes, known as tarns, are located in cirques formed by glacial erosion. Some of these lakes, like Avalanche Lake and Cracker Lake, are colored an opaque turquoise by suspended glacial silt,
which also causes a number of streams to run milky white. The lakes of
Glacier National Park remain cold year round, with temperatures rarely
above 50 °F (10 °C) at their surface. Cold water lakes such as these support little plankton
growth, ensuring that the lake waters are remarkably clear. The lack of
plankton, however, lowers the rate of pollution filtration, so
pollutants have a tendency to linger longer. Consequently, the lakes are
considered environmental bellwethers as they can be quickly affected by even minor increases in pollutants.
Two hundred waterfalls are scattered throughout the park.
However, during drier times of the year, many of these are reduced to a
trickle. The largest falls include those in the Two Medicine region, McDonald Falls in the McDonald Valley, and Swiftcurrent Falls in the Many Glacier area, which is easily observable and close to the Many Glacier Hotel. One of the tallest waterfalls is Bird Woman Falls, which drops 492 feet (150 m) from a hanging valley beneath the north slope of Mount Oberlin.
The rocks found in the park are primarily sedimentary rocks of the Belt Supergroup. They were deposited in shallow seas over 1.6 billion to 800 million years ago. During the formation of the Rocky Mountains 170 million years ago, one region of rocks now known as the Lewis Overthrust was forced eastward 50 miles (80 km). This overthrust was several miles (kilometers) thick and hundreds of miles (kilometers) long. This resulted in older rocks being displaced over newer ones, so the overlying Proterozoic rocks are between 1.4 and 1.5 billion years older than Cretaceous age rocks they now rest on.
One of the most dramatic evidences of this overthrust is visible
in the form of Chief Mountain, an isolated peak on the edge of the
eastern boundary of the park rising 2,500 feet (800 m) above the Great Plains. There are six mountains in the park over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in elevation, with Mount Cleveland at 10,466 feet (3,190 m) being the tallest. Appropriately named Triple Divide Peak sends waters towards the Pacific Ocean, Hudson Bay, and Gulf of Mexicowatersheds.
This peak can effectively be considered to be the apex of the North
American continent, although the mountain is only 8,020 feet (2,444 m)
above sea level.
The rocks in Glacier National Park are the best preserved Proterozoic
sedimentary rocks in the world, with some of the world's most fruitful
sources for records of early life. Sedimentary rocks of similar age
located in other regions have been greatly altered by mountain building
and other metamorphic changes; consequently fossils are less common and
more difficult to observe.
The rocks in the park preserve such features as millimeter-scale
lamination, ripple marks, mud cracks, salt-crystal casts, raindrop
impressions, oolites, and other sedimentary bedding characteristics. Six fossilized species of stromatolites, early organisms consisting of primarily blue-green algae, have been documented and dated at about 1 billion years. The discovery of the Appekunny Formation,
a well preserved rock stratum in the park, pushed back the established
date for the origination of animal life a full billion years. This rock
formation has bedding structures which are believed to be the remains of
the earliest identified metazoan (animal) life on Earth.
Glaciers
Glacial retreat since the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850
Glacier National Park is dominated by mountains which were carved into their present shapes by the huge glaciers of the last ice age. These glaciers have largely disappeared over the last 12,000 years. Evidence of widespread glacial action is found throughout the park in the form of U-shaped valleys, cirques, arêtes, and large outflow lakes radiating like fingers from the base of the highest peaks. Since the end of the ice ages, various warming and cooling trends have occurred. The last recent cooling trend was during the Little Ice Age, which took place approximately between 1550 and 1850.
During the Little Ice Age, the glaciers in the park expanded and
advanced, although to nowhere near as great an extent as they had during
the Ice Age.
During the middle of the 20th century, examination of the maps
and photographs from the previous century provided clear evidence that
the 150 glaciers known to have existed in the park a hundred years
earlier had greatly retreated, and in many cases disappeared altogether.
In the 1980s, the U.S. Geological Survey
began a more systematic study of the remaining glaciers, which has
continued to the present day. By 2010, 37 glaciers remained, but only 25
of them were at least 25 acres (0.10 km2) in area and therefore still considered active. Based on the warming trend of the early 2000s, scientists had estimated that the park's remaining glaciers would melt by 2020; however, a later estimate stated that the glaciers may be gone by 2030. This glacier retreat
follows a worldwide pattern that has accelerated even more since 1980.
Without a major climatic change in which cooler and moister weather
returns and persists, the mass balance,
which is the accumulation rate versus the ablation (melting) rate of
glaciers, will continue to be negative and the glaciers have been
projected to eventually disappear, leaving behind only barren rock.
After the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850, the glaciers in the
park retreated moderately until the 1910s. Between 1917 and 1941, the
retreat rate accelerated and was as high as 330 feet (100 m) per year
for some glaciers.
A slight cooling trend from the 1940s until 1979 helped to slow the
rate of retreat and, in a few cases, even advanced the glaciers over ten
meters. However, during the 1980s, the glaciers in the park began a
steady period of loss of glacial ice, which continues as of 2010. In
1850, the glaciers in the region near Blackfoot and Jackson Glaciers covered 5,337 acres (21.6 km2), but by 1979, the same region of the park had glacier ice covering only 1,828 acres (7.4 km2). Between 1850 and 1979, 73% of the glacial ice had melted away.
At the time the park was created, Jackson Glacier was part of Blackfoot
Glacier, but the two have separated into individual glaciers since.
The impact of glacier retreat on the park's ecosystems is not
fully known, but plant and animal species that are dependent on cold
water could suffer due to a loss of habitat. Reduced seasonal melting of
glacial ice may also affect stream flow during the dry summer and fall
seasons, reducing water table levels and increasing the risk of forest
fires. The loss of glaciers will also reduce the aesthetic visual appeal
that glaciers provide to visitors.
As the park spans the Continental Divide, and has more than 7,000 feet (2,100 m) in elevation variance, many climates and microclimates are found in the park. As with other alpine systems, average temperature usually drops as elevation increases.
The western side of the park, in the Pacific watershed, has a milder
and wetter climate, due to its lower elevation. Precipitation is
greatest during the winter and spring, averaging 2 to 3 inches (50 to
80 mm) per month. Snowfall can occur at any time of the year, even in
the summer, and especially at higher altitudes. The winter can bring
prolonged cold waves, especially on the eastern side of the Continental
Divide, which has a higher elevation overall.
Snowfalls are significant over the course of the winter, with the
largest accumulation occurring in the west. During the tourist season,
daytime high temperatures average 60 to 70 °F (16 to 21 °C), and
nighttime lows usually drop into the 40 °F (4 °C) range. Temperatures in
the high country may be much cooler. In the lower western valleys,
daytime highs in the summer may reach 90 °F (30 °C).
Rapid temperature changes have been noted in the region. In Browning, Montana,
just east of the park in the Blackfeet Reservation, a world record
temperature drop of 100 °F (56 °C) in only 24 hours occurred on the
night of January 23–24, 1916, when thermometers plunged from 44 to
−56 °F (7 to −49 °C).
Glacier National Park has a highly regarded global climate change research program. Based in West Glacier, with the main headquarters in Bozeman, Montana, the U.S. Geological Survey
has performed scientific research on specific climate change studies
since 1992. In addition to the study of the retreating glaciers,
research performed includes forest modeling studies in which fire
ecology and habitat alterations are analyzed. Additionally, changes in
alpine vegetation patterns are documented, watershed studies in which
stream flow rates and temperatures are recorded frequently at fixed
gauging stations, and atmospheric research in which UV-B
radiation, ozone and other atmospheric gases are analyzed over time.
The research compiled contributes to a broader understanding of climate
changes in the park. The data collected, when compared to other
facilities scattered around the world, help to correlate these climatic
changes on a global scale.
Glacier is considered to have excellent air and water quality. No
major areas of dense human population exist anywhere near the region
and industrial effects are minimized due to a scarcity of factories and
other potential contributors of pollutants.
However, the sterile and cold lakes found throughout the park are
easily contaminated by airborne pollutants that fall whenever it rains
or snows, and some evidence of these pollutants has been found in park
waters. Wildfires could also impact the quality of water. However, the
pollution level is currently viewed as negligible, and the park lakes
and waterways have a water quality rating of A-1, the highest rating
given by the state of Montana.
Wildlife and ecology
Flora
Beargrass is a tall flowering plant commonly found throughout the park.
Glacier is part of a large preserved ecosystem
collectively known as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem", all of
which is primarily untouched wilderness of a pristine quality. Virtually
all the plants and animals which existed at the time European explorers
first entered the region are present in the park today.
A total of over 1,132 plant species have been identified parkwide. The predominantly coniferous forest is home to various species of trees such as the Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, subalpine fir, limber pine and western larch, which is a deciduous conifer, producing cones but losing its needles each fall. Cottonwood and aspen are the more common deciduous trees and are found at lower elevations, usually along lakes and streams. The timberline
on the eastern side of the park is almost 800 feet (244 m) lower than
on the western side of the Continental Divide, due to exposure to the
colder winds and weather of the Great Plains. West of the Continental
Divide, the forest receives more moisture and is more protected from the
winter, resulting in a more densely populated forest with taller trees.
Above the forested valleys and mountain slopes, alpine tundra
conditions prevail, with grasses and small plants eking out an
existence in a region that enjoys as little as three months without snow
cover. Thirty species of plants are found only in the park and surrounding national forests. Beargrass,
a tall flowering plant, is commonly found near moisture sources, and is
relatively widespread during July and August. Wildflowers such as monkeyflower, glacier lily, fireweed, balsamroot and Indian paintbrush are also common.
The forested sections fall into three major climatic zones. The
west and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir and the southwest by red cedar and hemlock;
the areas east of the Continental Divide are a combination of mixed
pine, spruce, fir and prairie zones. The cedar-hemlock groves along the Lake McDonald valley are the easternmost examples of this Pacific climatic ecosystem.
Whitebark pine communities have been heavily damaged due to the effects of blister rust,
a non native fungus. In Glacier and the surrounding region, 30% of the
whitebark pine trees have died and over 70% of the remaining trees are
currently infected. The whitebark pine provides a high fat pine cone
seed, commonly known as the pine nut, that is a favorite food of red squirrels and Clark's nutcracker. Both grizzlies and black bears
are known to raid squirrel caches of pine nuts, one of the bears'
favorite foods. Between 1930 and 1970, efforts to control the spread of
blister rust were unsuccessful, and continued destruction of whitebark
pines appears likely, with attendant negative impacts on dependent
species.
Fauna
About 300 grizzly bears live in the park as of 2008.
Virtually all the historically known plant and animal species, with the exception of the bison and woodland caribou, are still present, providing biologists with an intact ecosystem for plant and animal research. Two threatened species of mammals, the grizzly bear and the lynx, are found in the park.
Although their numbers remain at historical levels, both are listed as
threatened because in nearly every other region of the U.S. outside of Alaska,
they are either extremely rare or absent from their historical range.
On average, one or two bear attacks on humans occur each year; since the
creation of the park in 1910, there have been a total of 10
bear-related deaths.
The number of grizzlies and lynx in the park is not known for certain,
but park biologists believed as of 2008 that there were just above 300
grizzlies in the park; a study which commenced in 2001 hopes to
determine the number of lynx. The exact population figures for grizzlies and the smaller black bear are not known but biologists are using a variety of methods to try to determine an accurate population range. Another study has indicated that the wolverine, another very rare mammal in the lower 48 states, also lives in the park. Other mammals such as the mountain goat (the official park symbol), bighorn sheep, moose, elk, mule deer, skunk, white-tailed deer, bobcat, coyote, and cougar are either plentiful or common. Unlike in Yellowstone National Park, which implemented a wolf reintroduction program in the 1990s, it is believed that wolves recolonized Glacier National Park naturally during the 1980s. Sixty-two species of mammals have been documented including badger, river otter, porcupine, mink, marten, fisher, two species of marmots, six species of bats, and numerous other small mammals.
Because of the colder climate, ectothermic reptiles are all but absent, with two species of garter snake and the western painted turtle being the only three reptile species proven to exist. Similarly, only six species of amphibians
are documented, although those species exist in large numbers. After a
forest fire in 2001, a few park roads were temporarily closed the
following year to allow thousands of western toads to migrate to other areas.
A total of 23 species of fish reside in park waters, and native game fish species found in the lakes and streams include the westslope cutthroat trout, northern pike, mountain whitefish, kokanee salmon and Arctic grayling. Glacier is also home to the threatenedbull trout, which is illegal to possess and must be returned to the water if caught inadvertently. Introduction in previous decades of lake trout
and other non-native fish species has greatly impacted some native fish
populations, especially the bull trout and west slope cutthroat trout.
Fire ecology
Wildfires burned 13% of the park in 2003.
Forest fires were viewed for many decades as a threat to protected areas such as forests and parks. As a better understanding of fire ecology
developed after the 1960s, forest fires were understood to be a natural
part of the ecosystem. The earlier policies of suppression resulted in
the accumulation of dead and decaying trees and plants, which would
normally have been reduced had fires been allowed to burn. Many species
of plants and animals actually need wildfires to help replenish the soil
with nutrients and to open up areas that allow grasses and smaller
plants to thrive.
Glacier National Park has a fire management plan which ensures that
human-caused fires are generally suppressed. In the case of natural
fires, the fire is monitored and suppression is dependent on the size
and threat the fire may pose to human safety and structures.
Increased population and the growth of suburban areas near
parklands, has led to the development of what is known as Wildland Urban
Interface Fire Management, in which the park cooperates with adjacent
property owners in improving safety and fire awareness. This approach is
common to many other protected areas. As part of this program, houses
and structures near the park are designed to be more fire resistant.
Dead and fallen trees are removed from near places of human habitation,
reducing the available fuel load and the risk of a catastrophic fire,
and advance warning systems are developed to help alert property owners
and visitors about forest fire potentials during a given period of the
year. Glacier National Park has an average of 14 fires with 5,000 acres (20 km2) burnt each year. In 2003, 136,000 acres (550 km2)
burned in the park after a five-year drought and a summer season of
almost no precipitation. This was the most area transformed by fire
since the creation of the park in 1910.
Glacier is distant from major cities. The closest airport is in Kalispell, Montana, southwest of the park. Amtrak trains stop at East and West Glacier, and Essex. A fleet of restored 1930s White Motor Company coaches, called Red Jammers,
offer tours on all the main roads in the park. The drivers of the buses
are called "Jammers", due to the gear-jamming that formerly occurred
during the vehicles' operation. The tour buses were rebuilt in 2001 by
Ford Motor Company. The bodies were removed from their original chassis
and built on modern Ford E-Series van chassis. They were also converted to run on propane to lessen their environmental impact.
Historic wooden tour boats, some dating back to the 1920s,
operate on some of the larger lakes. Several of these boats have been in
continuous seasonal operation at Glacier National Park since 1927 and
carry up to 80 passengers. Three of these decades-old boats were added to the National Register of Historic Places in January 2018.
Hiking is popular in the park. Over half of the visitors to the park
report taking a hike on the park's nearly 700 miles (1,127 km) of
trails. 110 miles (177 km) of the Continental Divide National Scenic Trail spans most of the distance of the park north to south, with a few alternative routes at lower elevations if high altitude passes are closed due to snow. The Pacific Northwest National Scenic Trail crosses the park on 52 miles (84 km) from east to west.
Dogs are not permitted on any trails in the park due to the
presence of bears and other large mammals. Dogs are permitted at front
country campsites that can be accessed by a vehicle and along paved
roads.
Anyone entering the United States over land or waterway from Canada must have a passport with them.
Many day hikes can be taken in the park. Back-country camping is
allowed at campsites along the trails. A permit is required and can be
obtained from certain visitor centers or arranged for in advance. Much
of Glacier's back country is usually inaccessible to hikers until early
June due to accumulated snow pack and avalanche risk, and many trails at
higher altitudes remain snow packed until July.
Campgrounds that allow vehicle access are found throughout the park,
most of which are near one of the larger lakes. The campgrounds at St. Mary
and at Apgar are open year-round, but conditions are primitive in the
off-season, as the restroom facilities are closed and there is no
running water. All campgrounds with vehicle access are usually open from
mid-June until mid-September. Guide and shuttle services are also available.
Climbers descend from the ridge of Dragon's Tail near Logan Pass
The park attracts many climbers though the rock quality is old and loose in the Lewis Overthrustfault structure. The seminal literature on climbing in the park, A Climber's Guide to Glacier National Park, was written by J. Gordon Edwards
in 1961, with the latest edition published in 1995. The Glacier
Mountaineers Society sponsors climbing in the park, issuing awards to
those climbers who summit all 10,000 ft (3,000 m) peaks or all five
technical peaks.
Some of the finest fly fishing
in North America can be found in the streams that flow through Glacier
National Park. A permit is not required to fish in park waters. The
threatened bull trout must be released immediately back to the water if caught; otherwise, the regulations on limits of catch per day are liberal.
Winter recreation in Glacier is limited. Snowmobiling is illegal throughout the park. Cross-country skiing is permitted in the lower altitude valleys away from avalanche zones.
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