- What is Life? Were such a question proposed, we should be tempted to answer, what is not Life that really is?
Background
European
thought had come through the scientific revolution concerning heaven
(astronomy) and earth (physics), and emerged, full of optimism about
man's power of cognition, into the Age of Reason or Enlightenment. In
facing the mystery of life itself, researchers first sought to apply the
method that had worked so effectively for inertial nature to the realm
of vital nature. In this approach Man himself was seen as a static
entity and a tabula rasa, onto which was written sense-experience,
considered as the source of all knowledge. Thus, life and knowledge were
increasingly regarded from a mechanical and materialistic perspective.
As William Godwin stated succinctly about the age, "the human mind… is
nothing but a faculty of perception," that all knowledge "comes from
impression," and the mind starts with "absolute ignorance." (Enquiry
Concerning Political Justice, 1793)
However, this approach faced a problem: the experience of a split
between subject (man as experiencing) and object (the thing being
experienced), the inner world of the mind and the outer world of things.
This very real experience created a growing unease and doubt in Western
philosophy regarding the reliability of sense-experience as the basis
for knowledge: did what was perceived bear any true relationship to what
was or was perception simply at best a representation of reality and at
worst an illusion. The epistemological dilemma arising from man's
existential reality eventuated in two positions - materialism and
idealism. The materialism of Hobbes elevated matter, and the
sense-experience of matter, to the level of sole reality, life being but
an epiphenomenon. The contrary position of Hume was that the only
reality man could be certain of was his inner experience of thought so
that reality was not object-ive (things outside of us), but a creation
of the mind. The materialist position was combatted initially by the
works of the Cambridge Platonists, notably More and Cudworth, who set
out to show how Nature, Man and the Divine were connected through a 'plastic power' that was accessible to the mind if it were approached rightly.
- Cudworth had challenged the rising tide of empiricism in his day by asserting that the universe was not (as Hobbes and others believed) composed merely of inert material atoms governed by mechanical laws; rather, the natural world was symbolic of a transcendent reality that lay beyond material appearances.
The idealist position was challenged by the Common Sense Philosophy of Thomas Reid.
The German philosopher, Immaunuel Kant, whose ancestors came from the
same part of Scotland as Reid, set out to rescue scientific knowledge
from the idealism of Hume. While his critical analysis set the
foundation for a more rigorous philosophy and science, his solution to
idealism was to accept Hume's limits to human knowledge as well as the
idea of a transcendent reality, but then to assert the legitimacy of
natural science in delineating the reality of sense-experience, and to
operate 'as if' what one perceived was indeed reality, an approach that
served to 'save the appearances'.
Central role of Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Romanticism
was inspired by Kant's critical approach to the problem of knowledge,
but rejected his limits to that knowledge, seeing it as confining the
science of vital nature to the materialist approach, making life an
epiphenomenon of "the chance whirlings of unproductive particles" as
Coleridge put it succinctly. There was a profound feeling that a new
epistemology, or 'science of knowledge' was needed to deal with the
question of vital nature and the nature of life itself. Art, and in
particular poetry, provided a vehicle to explore vital nature and to get
to its essence, but for it to be scientific required an epistemological
foundation. The central figure in the development of this epistemology
was Samuel Taylor Coleridge (along with J.W. von Goethe in Germany);
this was recognized in his time, after his time and even most recently.
- Certainly he stood athwart his age in many respects…and not least his seminal presence in the more ordered oeuvres of his friends and critics…continues to grow.
- ...he was so seminal a thinker that his insights and apercus tend to "sprout in the brains" with a fertility that is positively dangerous.
- The influence of Coleridge, like that of Bentham, extends far beyond those who share in the peculiarities of his religious or philosophical creed. He has been the great awakener in this country of the spirit of philosophy, within the bounds of traditional opinions. He has been, almost as truly as Bentham, 'the great questioner of things established'; for a questioner needs nor necessarily be an enemy. (John Stuart Mill, in Coleridge, 1840)
Coleridge was strongly influenced in his initial study of philosophy
by Kant, but also from the re-introduction of Platonic thought via the
Cambridge Platonists, particularly the discovery of Cudworth's history
of thought [Hill, Introduction], and the ideas of Plotinus and
neo-Platonism, not to mention the common sense philosophy of Thomas
Reid. The view of the mind as passive was challenged, as it seemed to
leave no room for creativity and individuality. His own experience of
creative powers of the mind, as experienced in and through poetry in
particular, led him to seek out the role of imagination in human
thought, and necessarily to distinguish it from fancy.
Role of imagination
The
meeting with Wordsworth in 1795 marked a turning point in Coleridge’s
thinking about thinking. In Wordsworth, Coleridge found a congenial
mind, one that helped to foster the "innate platonising quality" of his
mind. This collaboration led to an enhancement of his own poetic
creativity and the growth of his critical faculty.
- If Coleridge plunged impulsively into the Rubicon in 1795, it is equally clear that he emerged on the further shore in the late summer of 1802 and advanced directly on Rome with confidence and a firmly defined sense of mission.
Coleridge went to Germany with Wordsworth in 1798-99, learned German
and became more acquainted with German philosophy, both the Kantian
stream and German Idealism (Fichte, Schelling). Coleridge came to
realize that the mind was not an associative faculty governed by blind,
mechanical laws, as Hartley's doctrine of mechanical association
presented it, but rather was essentially a product of a creative shaping
power (imagination) that ruled perception and governed our mentation
but could also in its higher form be used to create new "things",
resulting in the evolution of consciousness and mind itself. Coleridge
distinguished between imagination and fancy, which only fabricated
illusions. For Coleridge, the creative capacity of the imagination, the
"prime agent of all human perception," was the key to connecting to the
essence of things outside of ourselves and overcoming the apparent split
between self and object occasioned by man's self-consciousness. The
driving force of that connection and the activation of the creative
imagination to get at the inherent essence of external objects was love,
a deep desire to know other than ourselves. As Dorothy Emmet (1952)
noted, the entire basis of Coleridge's new approach to knowing nature
was that "we should be able not only to look, but to love as we look" making philosophy and science a romantic endeavour.
Relation of matter and sense-experience to reality
For
Coleridge, Western philosophy was intellect-bound and driven,
containing no power of creative imagination, such as could be discerned
in the Greek term nous ("noetic capacity"), as expressed most maturely in neo-Platonic philosophy (Plotinus). Philosophy, for Coleridge, was scientia scientiarum
(the science of science), and critical to any advance in knowledge was
its ability to go beyond a mere compilation of facts to the use of the
creative imagination to create a true epistemology, or the 'true and
original realism.'
- The final object and distinctive character of philosophy, is this: for all that exists conditionally (i.e. the existence of which is inconceivable except under the condition of its dependency on some other as its antecedent) to find a ground that is unconditional and absolute, and thereby to reduce the aggregate of human knowledge to a system. Philosophy itself becomes the supplement of the sciences, both as the convergence of all to the common end, namely, wisdom; and as supplying the copula, which modified in each science in the comprehension of its parts to one whole, is in its principles common to all the sciences, as integral parts of one system. And this is METHOD, itself a distinct science, the immediate offspring of philosophy, and the link or mordant by which philosophy becomes scientific and the sciences philosophical. The office of philosophical disquisition consists in just distinction; while it is the privilege of the philosopher to preserve himself constantly aware, that distinction is not division. In order to obtain adequate notions of any truth, we must intellectually separate its distinguishable parts; and this is the technical process of philosophy. But having so done, we must then restore them in our conceptions to the unity, in which they actually co-exist; and this is the result of philosophy.
This capacity for seeing in a new light required a new capacity, and
just as 'all the organs of sense are framed for a corresponding world of
sense' so 'all the organs of spirit are framed for a correspondent
world of spirit' so that the first principle of a true philosophy is 'to
render the mind intuitive of the spiritual in man' that is, that which
lies on the other side of our natural awareness from sense-experience.
And it is the sense-world that derives from a higher super-sensible
world, not the converse as materialism would have it. "I teach a real
existence of a spiritual world without a material, but no matter without
Spirit.'
This world beyond the confines of space and time involved an 'ethereal
element' by means of which individual entities, at base non-material,
could communicate via 'the tremulous reciprocations of which propagate
themselves to the inmost of the soul'. And these tremulations operate on
and between entities via one's deep desire (love-resonance) that
creates a circuit between subject and object, such that one has access
via an inner organ (Coleridge's "inmost mind" or Goethe's Gemüt)
and the corresponding 'philosophic' or re-emergent Greek noetic organ.
All knowledge for Coleridge rests on the "coadunation" of subject and
object, of the representation in the mind (thought) of a sense
experience with the object itself, which can only occur where there is a
connection between subject and object ('a reciprocal concurrence of
both') beyond pure sense-experience, such that the thought that arises
out of 'the mind's self-experience in the act of thinking' produces not a
representation but a phenomenon (in the Heideggerian sense) that is the
re-enactment in the mind of reality (such as for Collingwood in his Idea of History) and as such is knowledge that is apodictic, heuristic and hermeneutic all at the same time.
Dual basis for the epistemology of life
Coleridge
based his epistemology on two facts of experience: that of self (I AM)
and that of a world co-connected with self. Our being is something we
can know intuitively and certainly, but the existence of things outside
is less certain and subject to doubt, unless one acknowledges that a
world outside is 'not only coherent but identical, and one and the same
thing with our own immediate self-consciousness', that is, that the
experience of things without is a function of our experience of self. If
we use only the intellect, we separate things that are not in reality
separated, and this then gives only a knowledge of the outer appearances
(Baon's natura naturata), termed in German, Wissen, known as natural science (Natur-Wissenschaft). Upon irradiation from the noetic (from Greek nous)
ideational capacity, however, this natural science of inert nature then
becomes a useful means to render rational and analytical (therefore
public knowledge or science) what is otherwise experienced only
internally as a private ('subjective') knowledge.
The presupposition of material science of an objective world 'out
there' separate from us that causes sense-experience and is then
responsible for our thoughts and feelings is replaced for Coleridge by
'the truest and most binding realism' that is grounded in a
"coeducation" between subject and object, mediated by the creative
imagination, a very real power of mind that reunites in 'the human mind
above nature', what is always united, but only separate by a 'prejudice
of our mind' due to our self-consciousness arising out of the
self-awareness created by the mental capacity (Latin mens). Coleridge’s
“true and original realism” accepts that the object perceived is itself
real and not an illusion of the mind, as Hume and Kant would have it,
but also that 'an object is inconceivable without a subject as its
antithesis. Omen perceptum percipientum supponit [Everything
perceived supposes a perceiver].' At the same time, the underlying
principle of this realism can be neither subject or object, but that
which unites the two, and this is a self-consciousness presence of mind
('self-consciousness is not a kind of being, but a kind of knowing' - Biographia Literaria)
- Thesis VI: This principle, and so characterised manifests itself in the SUM or I AM; which I shall hereafter indiscriminately express by the words spirit, self, and self-consciousness. In this, and in this alone, object and subject, being and knowing, are identical, each involving and supposing the other. In other words, it is a subject which becomes a subject by the act of constructing itself objectively to itself; but which never is an object except for itself, and only so far as by the very same act it becomes a subject.
Sense-experience for Coleridge does not cause mind but is a means of
revealing and evolving mind. As a result, being and thinking are not
related as cause to effect, but as co-determinant. “... the principium
essendi does not stand to the principlum cognoscende in the relation of
cause to effect, but both the one and the other are co-inherent and
identical.” (Biographia Literaria) Self-conscious, being a
self-contained principle, can then be made into a pure thought,
containing a polarity, "with two opposite and counteracting forces,"
which is the minimum needed for motion (“life”), that then leads to
self-discovery and "the fullness of the human intelligence." (Biographia Literaria)
- If the intelligent faculty should be rendered more comprehensive, it would require only a different and apportioned organization–the body celestial instead of the body terrestrial–to bring before every human soul the collective experience of its whole past existence. (Biographia Literaria)
Method
The means
by which philosophy, or the general principles for seeking knowledge,
is rendered into actual knowledge or science is “method.” Method
involves the considered, thoughtful arrangement of parts that reflects
the inner essence of things (association by continuity), and not simply
their apparent association in space and time (association by
contiguity). This involves a "preconception" a "leading Thought" -
Bacon's 'forethoughtful inquiry' or 'dry light' (lumens siccum) - and
a"progressive transition" not "a mere dead arrangement."
- But as, without continuous transition, there can be no Method, so without a preconception there can be no transition with continuity. The term, Method cannot therefore, otherwise than by abuse, be applied to a mere dead arrangement, containing in itself no principle of progression.
Coleridge uses the example of electricity which had been known as an
empirical fact for centuries, but it was not until science took on the
organizing Idea of polarity (out of the genius of mind that derived this
from the “given” of the world order), that rapid progress was made in
revealing the nature and governing laws of this fact of nature. This is
in contrast to magnetism, also known for centuries, but still 'unknown'
scientifically in his day as being still without an organizing Idea.
- The naturalist, who cannot or will not see, that one fact is often worth a thousand (the important consideration so often dwelt upon, so forcibly urged, so powerfully amplified and explained by our great countryman Bacon), as including them all in itself, and that it first makes all the others facts; who has not the head to comprehend, the soul to reverence, a central experiment or observation (what the Greeks would perhaps have called a protophenomenon)–; will never receive an auspicious answer from the oracle of nature.
The fact of a relationship of parts to wholes derives from man’s
inherent experience of himself as apart from nature and yet somehow
connected with it, “the instinct, in which humanity itself is grounded:
that by which, in every act of conscious perception, we at once identify
our being with that of the world without us, and yet place ourselves in
contradistinction to that world.”
- The arrangement of parts must be into a consciously perceived real whole where the whole is in each of the parts (though some parts may contain more of the whole), and is not merely the sum of the parts (mechanism) or even greater or above the parts (mysticism). Arranging the parts into their governing whole involves two forms of ordering or relations: ordination, or the hierarchicial arrangement of discoveries using the 'leading Thought" such as in medicine, physics and chemistry, and "LAW", which is the correlative to the Platonic 'IDEA', In other words, Idea and Law are the Subjective and Objective Poles of the same Magnet i.e. of the same living and energizing Reason [Wisdom]. What is an Idea in the Subject, i.e. in the Mind, is a Law in the Object, i.e. in Nature. (from a letter by Coleridge of 23 June 1829)
Both determine the relation of the parts to the whole, and create the
governing 'truth originating in the [noetic] mind, and not abstracted
or generalized from observation of the parts." There is divine or
spiritual LAW and Natural Law, and between these two lies the laws
governing human culture or the arts, for every work of the genius of man
contains 'a necessary predominance of the Ideas (i.e. of that which
originates in the artist himself), and a comparative indifference of the
materials'.
The goal of philosophy is to make systematic and conscious that
which otherwise happens naturally, but unconsciously, namely access to
the higher realm of Idea and Law (what Coleridge termed revelation), so
as to then unfold through reason the various principles of application.
- Deep Thinking is attainable only by a man of deep Feeling, and all Truth is a species of Revelation."
The development and progression of mind and consciousness from and to
this realm of what the Greeks termed wisdom (philosophy being the
systematic means of bringing wisdom from the Superconscious Mind ("The
vision and the faculty divine") and individual sub-consciousness into
the conscious mind) is what Coleridge terms “Method.”
From this Coleridge is led to conclude that there is a functional polarity: the productive power (dynamis),
"which acts in nature as nature, is essentially one…with…the
intelligence, which is in the human mind above nature." (BL) Given this
“self-organising” power in nature, form then follows function, or form
is developed not from without, but from within. While developing and
once developed, it can be influenced from without (stimuli), but its
formative forces lie within and work outward. The correlative of this is
“that as the forms in all organized existence, so must all true and
living knowledge proceed from within.” Knowledge is a proper exercise of
mind, not the blind, mechanical collation of data along some presumed
criteria for ordering. As Coleridge wrote of Bacon, who he saw as
misunderstood and misinterpreted, "the truths which have their
signatures in nature, and which (as he himself plainly and often
asserts) may indeed be revealed to us through and with, but never by the
senses, or the faculty of sense."
Thus, the role of mind becomes paramount. Where in Nature there
are laws to keep everything in harmonious, dynamic whole, powered by a
blind force (living principle), there must also be a similar force, but
rational in essence, that works on and in man, what the Greeks termed
the Logos, and its executive organ, the nous.
Coleridge sees two directions for the mind - outward and inward -
reflecting the two givens of man’s existence - the world “out there,”
experienced through the physical senses and the world “in here,”
experienced through man’s thinking capacity. The "Sense" (German Sinn) polarically contrasted with "the inmost Mind" (Goethe's Gemüt) - "A science which derives its name and character from the Logos.. as distinguished from ... the Sense and from the Nous." (Treatise on Logic II, 38 and 39) and in his Essays on Method, Essay XI, "[There are] two forms of method, inseparably co-existent."
- If the artist copies the mere nature, the natura naturata, what idle rivalry! If he proceeds only from a given form, which is supposed to answer to the notion of beauty, what an emptiness, what an unreality there always is in his productions, as in Cipriani’s pictures! Believe me, you must master the essence [Wesen], the natura naturans, which presupposes a bond between [mother]nature in the higher sense and the soul of man [human nature]." (On Poesy or Art 1818)
There is a method for discovering both: the sensbile world of nature
out there (though also within us), via a simple desire to explore; and
the super-sensible world of man’s thought activity within. In essence,
as Coleridge says: “The potential works in us [virtually] even as the
actual works on us.”
Coleridge challenged two basic assumptions of inertial science:
the absolute dichotomy between mind and matter (or subjective and
objective), or the severed “outness” of nature; and the assumption as
fact, that physical nature has acted always and at all times the same
(“uniformitarianism”) – that is the assumption of a fixed “outness” of
perceived objects (natura naturata).
The first follows from the second as uniformitarianism
presupposes the fixed “outness” of appearances. However, as Coleridge
understood, “outness” is not tenable philosophically or historically.
For Coleridge, scientific method cannot be based on the absolute
“outness” of things, but must involve accepting that an ‘object as
experienced’ is, in plain terms, the object itself; and that there is no
other, and somehow still more objective, object lurking coyly behind it
(as Kant would have it).
Theory of life
Man, being his own ground and starting point, (the scriptural I AM in
that I AM or YHWH) is then confronted with the mystery of life. There
is an apparent chain of being from the lowliest form of biological life
to the highest. The highest is man himself, the one with the unique
capability for self-awareness and self-reflection, thinking about things
and even thinking about thinking, the highest form. It is also obvious
that there are different kinds as well as degrees, seen in the
distinction between minerals and animals, and between these two kingdoms
and the plant kingdom. In the latter distinction, there also generally
is seen the presence or absence of life. Matter, in the mineral form, is
not dead, but what Saumarez termed "common matter," whereas plants and
animals involve "living matter." This is what Coleridge terms “life
biological” as for him, there is life in all of creation, life
consisting of a dynamic polarity of forces, that is both inherent in the
world as potential and acting inherently in all manifestation: "Thus,
then, Life itself is not a thing—a self-subsistent hypostasis—but an act
and process." (Biographia Literaria)
This dynamic polarity produces motion, acts throughout all of
creation, and via the power of the creative imagination, leads to the
evolution of mind and consciousness. And the direction of this motion of
the universe is towards increasing individuation, though there is also
equal and opposite tendency of connection, the interaction of which
leads to higher and higher individuation, "the one great end of Nature,
her ultimate object."(Biographia Literaria)
This productive or generative power of life (Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb-
Coleridge sat in on his lectures during his visit to Germany) exists in
all manifestations of life. These manifestations are the finite product
of the dynamic interaction of infinite and non-destructible forces, but
its "productive energy is not extinguished in this product, but
overflows, or is effluent…as the function of the body." (BL). Thus, the
very nature of the “given” (IT IS) is contained in its manifestations
such that the whole is contained in all the parts.
Life, that is, the essential polarity in unity ('multeity in
unity') in Coleridge’s sense also has a four beat cycle, different from
the arid dialectics of abstraction - namely the tension of the polar
forces themselves, the charge of their synthesis, the discharge of their
product (indifference) and the resting or 'gathering' state of this new
form (predominance). The product is not a neutralization, but a new
form, a new creation or emergent, of the essential forces, these forces
remaining within, though now as the functions of the form.
- But as little can we conceive the oneness, except as the mid-point producing itself on each side; that is, manifesting itself on two opposite poles. Thus, from identity we derive duality, and from both together we obtain polarity, synthesis, indifference, predominance. (Biographia Literaria)
- To make it adequate, we must substitute the idea of positive production for that of rest, or mere neutralization. To the fancy alone it is the null-point, or zero, but to the reason it is the punctum saliens, and the power itself in its eminence.
Matter, for Coleridge is the product of the dynamic forces -
repulsion (centrifugal), and attraction (centripetal); it is not itself a
productive power but a resultant. It is also forms the mass of a given
body. The entire process of nature is this progressive unfolding of
principle into matter, and then the increasing tendency to move inward
that which was previously external, that is, to individuate forms.
With Coleridge, there is also a four-fold or bi-polarity of
powers, forces and energies represented by the cross. Each power has
itself two poles. In ancient philosophy this bi-polarity was represented
by the four element theory - air, water, fire and earth and more
modernly by the four-fold composition of matter - carbon (earth),
hydrogen (fire), oxygen (water) and nitrogen (air).
This progressive unfolding of the initial dynamic principle into
the dimensions of space and time leads to a trinity of 'life
biological'.
- My hypothesis will, therefore, be thus expressed, that the constituent forces of life in the human living body are—first, the power of length, or REPRODUCTION; second, the power of surface (that is, length and breadth), or IRRITABILITY; third, the power of depth, or SENSIBILITY. With this observation I may conclude these remarks, only reminding the reader that Life itself is neither of these separately, but the copula of all three… (Here we can also see the interchange between Schelling and Andreas Röschlaub in Germany in the context of Romantic medicine).
- The study of sensibility gives rise to the issue of mind and consciousness. As a medical colleague lectured in this regard, the ‘ultimate end of organic nature is presented in the achievement of that sensibility ... by which the animal exists from itself, in itself, and, though imperfectly, for itself .... Now, this position is the same as to assert that a mind must be added to life, and consequently, that a transition from life to mind . . . must be assumed.’
Coleridge also sees that the instincts - hunger, thirst, mating -
motivate growth and evolve into higher powers, the most important being
that of desire which 'has something of the quality of the concept of
imagination".
As Bostetter states: “The fact that he derives all the passions
from the third vital power [Desire]–fundamentally a sexual power–shows
how much aware he is of its importance.” And in linking it also to the
mind elsewhere, shows how thought itself is a “sexual” function
(Eureka!). With the study of the passions, the intermediate stage
between life and the emergence of mind, Coleridge had in mind a system
in which mind was both the passive goal and active agent in “life
universal.” For Bostetter, his was a transcendentalism “in which a
universal mind or life force created, flowed through, and, by process of
evolution, shaped the physical universe.”
Mind and polarity of powers
The Mind is bipolar in that intellect and reason comprise the 'sense' and nous poeticos and nous patheticos, the dual aspects of the nous itself, "the inmost nature" of mind.
- The flux and reflux of the mind in all its subtlest thoughts and feelings…in its inmost nature - in modes of inmost being - the tremulous reciprocations of which propagate themselves even to the inmost of the soul. (Biographia Literaria)
For Coleridge, the mind was an action, a power not a thing, ('the
mind's self-experience in the act of thinking') and in this power there
are two powers, active and passive, with the imagination functioning
in-between.
- There are evidently two powers at work, which relatively to each other are active and passive; and this is not possible without an intermediate faculty, which is at once both active and passive. (BL)
- Thus, the act of thinking presents two sides for contemplation, – that of external causality, in which the train of thought may be considered as the result of outward sensations, of accidental combinations, of fancy, or the associations of memory, –and on the other hand, that of internal causality, or of the energy of the will on the mind itself. Thought therefore, might be thus regarded as passive [reactive] or [pro]active. (BL)
Imagination, desideration and polarity
Coleridge
goes on to deal with this power of imagination that emerged from the
third power of the passions - desideration. The emotions, if
contemplated and “recollected in tranquility” produce objective, as
opposed to subjective, feeling that can then be expressed aesthetically
via symbols (Suzanne Langer).
The 'poetic' imagination is essentially projective, producing
projective art works, whilst the philosophic imagination of Coleridge is
evocative and is used to draw out the meaning and essence of the
symbols already extant in our surroundings. And these objective
feelings, being linked to reality and the over-riding super-sensible
determinant of that reality, act powerfully within the forms of nature
and culture. As was expressed in the Preface to the Lyrical Ballads,
"the power of the human imagination is sufficient to produce such
changes even in our physical nature as might almost appear miraculous…"
(This would point to the founder of the American New Thought movement, Phineas Parkhurst Quimby)
In a famous passage from his Biographia Literaria,
Coleridge distinguishes between the primary imagination, which is the
underlying agent of human perception, and the secondary imagination,
which operates more in the conscious mind, and this is further polarized
between its highest effort - new re-creation (unity through
re-creation) - and its fallback - a struggle to unify through
idealization.
- The primary Imagination I hold to be the living power and prime agent of all human perception, and as a repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act of creation in the infinite I AM. [It acts by creating a oneness, even as nature, the greatest of poets, acts upon us when we open our eyes upon an extended prospect.] The secondary Imagination I consider as an echo of the former, co-existing with the conscious will, yet still as identical with the primary in the kind of its agency, and differing only in degree, and in the mode of its operation. It dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to recreate: or where this process is rendered impossible, yet still at all events it struggles to idealize and to unify. It is essentially vital, even as all objects (as objects) are essentially fixed and dead.(Biographia Literaria)
For Coleridge, poetry is idealistic and man needs to go beyond the
projective forms of art, the belletristic arts, to another art form,
this time where man as subject, draws out of nature, including human
nature, the potential that is there in what we actually experience. For
Romantic medicine, in particular, Andreas Röschlaub and Samuel Hahnemann, the art of remediation, to achieve a true health for the individual, was an evocative art, Heilkunde and Heilkunst,
that sought, as in the ancient Greek idea of education, to educe, to
elicit or draw out of the suffering individual what was potential (state
of health) into actuality.
Imagination and understanding
Imagination
is active and acts while “hovering between images,” and when it fixes
on a given image, it then becomes understanding. Communication of these
images of the understanding is what Coleridge terms 'noetic ideation'.
“Communication by the symbolic use of the Understanding is the function
of Queen Imagination on behalf of Noetic Ideation.”
In contrast, fancy is static and idealising, creating nothing real,
but it does, as Colerdige notes, provide a “drapery” for the body of
thought.
The power of imagination is evident in the relationship of
reality between parts and whole, and the ability thereby to associate
parts of the same whole (phenomenon) (association by contiguity) that
are not ordinarily so associated in time and space (association by
continuity), "the perception of similitude in dissimilitude" which
"principle is the great spring of the activity of our minds, and their
chief feeder." (Wordsworth's Preface to the Lyrical Ballads) Indeed, it
is in the ability to see what is similar in what appears dissimilar, and
what is dissimilar in what presents as similar (continuity) that
resides the creative genius of a man.
Art is an artificial arrangement, that is to say, not that of
crude nature, but nature re-arranged is “re-presented” to the mind of
man so that there is a condensed unity of parts in a given
representation (compare Literature with History). It is not an illusion,
but a re-creation of nature’s innate unity, unconscious and
promiscuous, into a new unity.
- [Art] is a figurative language of thought, and is distinguished from nature by the unity of all the parts in one thought or idea... Hence nature itself would give us the impression of a work of art, if we could see the thought which is present at once in the whole and in every part; and a work of art will be just in proportion as it adequately conveys the thought, and rich in proportion to the variety of parts which it holds in unity.
In re-presenting nature, the “poet” is not simply copying or
distorting nature. But in order to do so, he "must master the essence,
the natura naturans, which presupposes a bond between nature in
the higher sense and the soul of man" or human nature. The wisdom of
nature, the primal wisdom, is in man in the form of the body; it is
participative, unconscious and instantaneous (instinctual). The wisdom
of man has to be produced, re-created and given a conscious value or
appraisal. It needs to be made coadunative, compresent by an act of will
through objective feeling and noetic ideation. In this regard, the body
wisdom (Walter Cannon) is striving to become conscious wisdom "in the human mind above nature."
- ...to make the external internal, the internal external, to make nature thought, and thought nature—this is the mystery of genius in the fine arts. Dare I add that the genius must act on the feeling, that body is but a striving to become mind—that it is mind in its essence? (Biographia Literaria)
Intellect
The intellect is "the faculty of suiting measures to circumstances," or "the faculty judging according to sense."
Intellect is linked initially to fancy, such that their functioning
forms a law by which man "is impelled to abstract the changes and
outward relations of matter and to arrange them under the form of causes
and effects." This law is necessary for man's awareness and freedom, but if not conjoined with a new participative capacity (the Goethean Gemüt) would "prevent or greatly endanger man's development and progression."
The intellect in man, as contrasted with animals, is the ability not
only to obey rules, but to create them and to know what the term "rule"
means. It is the possibility of sense experience. Sensation is "already
intelligence in process of constructing itself."
Thus, "intelligence is a self-development and sensation itself is but
vision nascent, not the cause of intelligence, but intelligence itself
revealed as an earlier power in the process of self-construction"
working on the sense-data to provide names of objects and the
relationships of their outer forms in terms of cause and effect (what Suzanne Langer terms 'figuration').
Intellect and reason
The
intellect also is to be distinguished from reason. The intellect,
unirradiated by reason, is a faculty of the instinct, which man shares
with the higher animals (cunning). It is subject to the physical laws of
heredity, and the evolution from sense to passive understanding is an
identical one in man and animal. In man, there is in addition its polar
opposite, namely "active" intellect, which, in the form of conscious
intent, is there in man all along as potential in contrast to the animal
and forms the basis for criminal law (mens rea). The intellect is
reactive as regards the sense pole and proactive as regards the pole of
reason (the conceptual faculty).
- For the [intellect] is in all respects a medial and mediate faculty, and has therefore two extremities or poles, the sensual, in which form it is St. Paul's φρονημα σαρκος [phronema sarkos - Romans 8., carnal mind] and the intellectual pole, or the hemisphere (as it were) turned towards the reason.
Reason essentially deals with principles and the intellect with
concepts, both factual (physical) and functional (etheric). The noetic
faculty deals with Ideas, which then are elaborated into principles by
reason, whilst the intellect establishes concepts arranged using scalar
logic (for ordination of facts) and polar logic (for functions). This
provides a trinity of mind, wherein the intermediate faculty of
imagination is the matrix connecting all of them.
Reason is present in the whole process of nature, yet is
accessible only to the intellect. It is responsible for the awakening
process in human consciousness from unconsciousness, through sleeping
and dreaming to waking. Coleridge understood an ascent of consciousness
from sense perception, wherein reason lies as potential only (Sleeping
Beauty) to the apprehension of reason itself.
For Coleridge, intellect is "the faculty of rules" and reason
"the source of principles." Intellect is the world of man, and human
law, where the end can and often does justify the means. It is not the
world of reason. It is the fact of reason's presence in nature that
allows us to speak of it becoming apparent or "present to" the
intellect, such that we have an ulterior consciousness that is behind
the natural awareness (the "unconscious") of all animals, one that is
self-reflective or "philosophic" though there is a purely 'mental'
philosophy that Coleridge termed 'psilosophy' and that which involves
also the noetic capacity of mind (the nous rather than just the mens) which is true philosophy in the Greek sense of 'love of wisdom' — philia "love", sophia "wisdom."
- Plants are Life dormant; Animals = Somnambulists; the mass of Mankind Day-dreamers; the Philosopher only awake.
And this creates a functional identity between the philosophic
imagination and instinct, as those who have the first, "...feel in their
own spirits the same instinct, which impels the chrysallis of the
horned fly to leave room in its involucrum for antennae yet to come.
They know and feel that the potential works in them, even as the actual
works on them."
What renders the intellect human (that is, active) is precisely
the ability to identify by naming (nominalism), that is, to abstract or
generalize, for it is from this ability that we get the human ability of
speech. And it is in speech or language that we first see this
irradiation of the intellect by reason. Animals may generalize, but they
do not name, they do not have the power of abductive
inference. Reason makes its mark in the form of the grammar of a
language. Thus, the higher understanding is concerned not only with
names, but then only with names (denominating) as describing
appearances, not content.
- ...in all instances, it is words, names or, if images, yet images used as words or names, that are the only and exclusive subject of understanding. In no instance do we understand a thing in itself; but only the name to which it is referred.
Reason exists in language in the form of grammar (principles of
language), though not in idioms which transcend the rational structure).
- It is grammar that reflects the forms of the human mind, and gradually familiarises the half-conscious Boy with the fram and constitution of his own Intellect, as the polished Glass does the unconscious infant with the features of his own countenance…bringing about that power of Abstraction, by which as the condition and the means of self-knowledge, the reasoning Intellect of Man is distinguished in kind from the mechanical [intellect] of the Dog, the Elephant, the Bee, the Ant, and whatever other animals display an intelligence that we cannot satisfactorily reduce to mere Instinct…
It is the power to abstract from experience that makes us human, but
this power must become a means to an end, not an end in itself, as in
material science. That end is imagination and reason, and then, for
Coleridge, on to the 'organ' of noetic ideation, the Greek nous..
In instinct we are united with nature, in intellection we are
detached from nature, and in imagination re-united with nature. If we
make passive understanding (intellection)- the power of abstraction - an
end in itself, we become according to Coleridge "a race of animals, in
whom the presence of reason is manifested solely by the absence of
instinct." This means that we become slaves to the idols of our own
making (the appearances of things) "falling prostrate before lifeless
images, the creatures of his own abstraction, [man] is himself
sensualized, and becomes a slave to the things of which he was formed to
be the conqueror and sovereign."
Without reason, we are but animals and commit existential
suicide, submitting, as earlier Sophists, "all positions alike, however
heterogeneous, to the criterion of the mere [intellect]."
By shutting out reason we end up in a world of opinions,
authority-based law, instruction, material science, and the death of
spirit and soul. Enlightenment becomes the tyranny of the intellect and
good intentions end up on the guillotine of the intellect. Abstraction
turned back on itself, becomes dependent on the senses and the outer
appearances, or the despotism of the eye and "leads to a science of
delusion" as Coleridge stated. The so-called Enlightenment was more the
"deliberate shuttering of the [intellect] from the light of reason."
Without reason, the intellect becomes active under the impulsion
of fancy, such that "the omission to notice what not is being noticed
will be supposed not to exist" or "to limit the conceivable within the
bounds of the perceivable", which is the tyranny or despotism of the physical eye.
Reason irradiates the human psyche at all levels as it is, for
Coleridge, in seed form even at the lowest level of consciousness. It is
the original impetus for self-projection or individuation as Coleridge
put it. Reason is a unity not itself divisible, as it can only be used
in the singular, unlike intellect and intellects.
The intellect operating at the sense pole provides the power that
leads to abstraction and man's separation from nature, but also
awareness of self as separate from nature and God. However, detachment
can lead to existential despair without the 'light of reason' to provide
a new attachment or relationship to nature and God, one based on
individual sovereignty. With reason, the nisus is from sense to
consciousness and finally to self-consciousness, that is, individuation.
Until reason is consciously apprehended, we remain in a plant or
animal-like state of consciousness, but when apprehended, we are "awake"
(reborn in spirit). The last stage requires the active understanding,
which is the intellect fully irradiated by reason, itself irradiated by
Nous.
- There are evidently two powers at work, which relatively to each other are active and passive; and this is not possible without an intermediate faculty, which is at once both active and passive...In philosophical language, we must denominate this intermediate faculty in all its degrees and determinations, the IMAGINATION, the compleating power which unites clearness with depth, the plenitude of the sense with the comprehensibility of the [intellect], impregnated with which the [intellect] itself becomes [understanding]– an intuitive and living power. (Biographia Literaria)
This then allows for “speculation,” which is the Baconian realisation of the natural idea out of natura naturata, or the outer appearances of things, guided by the forethoughtful inquiry (lumens siccum) coming from what Coleridge termed the more inmost part of the mind, the noetic capacity or nous. Without such irradiation from both the nous
and reason, we end up with “lawless flights of speculation”
(Coleridge). Lawful speculation, however, could then be processed by the
new Greek or Goethean participative (coadunative, compresent) capacity (Gemüt), and worked up into a phenomenological presentation.
Reason without the focus on sense experience is “pure reason” (Rudolf Steiner’s “pure thinking” or pure sinnen)
and in that condition, reason is able to make contact with and be
irradiated itself by wisdom. Copernican reason (Aristarchus) allowed us
to comprehend the universal verus the Ptolemaic intellect which kept us
'earthbound' in terms of our point of reference. Our individuation
culminates in what Coleridge terms "the fullness of intelligence."
The light of reason is thus both the origin and the abiding basis
of individuality. Without the positive presence of reason to the
understanding [intellect], there is no individuality, only the
detachment which individual being presupposes. Reason, in both its
negative and its positive aspect, is the individualiser. Reason itself
unirradiated (by the Nous) leads to the dominance of the collective
(Hegel's State) over the individual.
Reason and self-consciousness
Reason
operating consciously in us through the imagination is the act of
self-consciousness, the “I AM.” Reason, via the intellect also enables
initially the mind's detachment from nature, creating 'subject' and
'object.' It provides for the power to behold polarities and indeed
shows itself "out of the moulds of the understanding only in the
disguise of two contradictory conceptions."
To avoid being propelled into existential nihilsm, we then need to use
the active side of reason ('productive unity'), such that reason is "the
tendency at once to individuate and to connect, to detach, but so as
either to retain or to reproduce attachment."
To go from the indirect moonlight of mere intellect (mirrored
through sense experience) to the direct sunlight of active understanding
(irradiated by reason) is to go from exterior perception (of
appearances) to a universal ulterior appercetion of phenomena (phenomenology);
"it is to pass on from fancy's business of arranging and re-arranging
the 'products of destruction, the cadavera rerum,' to imagination's
business with 'the existence of absolute life,' or Being, which is the
'correlative of truth.'" (Biographia Literaria) It is also to go
from the delusion that diversity is division or that a concept held by
two minds is two concepts, rather than two exemplars of one concept.
The power that allows reason to act on the intellect so as to
raise it and make it active, as understanding, is the creative or
secondary imagination.
- ... all the products of the mere reflective faculty [moulds of intellect] partook of death, and were as the rattling twigs and sprays in winter, into which a sap was yet to be propelled from some root... (Biographia Literaria)
- ... the IMAGINATION, the compleating power which unites clearness with depth, the plenitude of the sense with the comprehensibility of the [intellect], impregnated with which the [intellect] itself becomes [understanding]– an intuitive and living power..(Biographia Literaria)
And the apparent contradictions revealed initially by passive reason,
are really the dynamic functions of life, and this can only be
perceived by the active power of reason, which involves the imagination.
- Polarity, being 'incompatible with the mathematical calculus,' is not graspable by the understanding [intellect], but only in the imagination; in fact we have already had occasion to specify it as the basic act of imagination.
And reason is also part of the Logos for Coleridge ("the Word or
Logos is life, and communicates life" and it is also "light, and
communicates light," the light of positive reason, or Nous). The
negative form of reason, which is the capability God gave man to
comprehend the divine light, is light in its potential form, though the
darkness of the mere intellect may fail to comprehend it.
Theory of language
"Words
are living powers, not merely articulated air." Language is to
consciousness what geometry is to space and mathematics to time. It is
language, not sense experience, that orients mind to reality.
For Coleridge, language in its highest form, is the very tool and
vehicle for understanding reality and the basis for the evolution of
mind and consciousness. He takes as the foundation our immediate living
experience of things (Thomas Reid's Common Sense)
as well as of our very self - the mind as dynamic act. Words, for
Coleridge, reveal the creative mind, working via the power of
imagination (versus the power of fancy) to reveal reality (not to create
artifacts of experience). However, there is a difference between the
popular, descriptive use of language, which "as objects are essentially
fixed and dead," and the more serious discursive, scholarly use of
language. Beyond that there is the 'best part of language', the language
of disclosure, which discloses by the very use of precise,
desynonimized terms.
This 'disclosive' language emerges as a result of the cultivation of profound (objective) feeling (Suzanne Langer), and deep thought (involving the inmost mind (nous), in both its nether (the nous patheticos, or Goethe's Gemüt)
and upper aspects (nous poieticos or Rudolf Steiner's Geist). Here, the
full mind, both mental and noetic, not just the intellect and reason,
is active in establishing the meaning of words. Disclosive language taps
into and contains the 'fullness of intelligence', expressing living
experience (Erlebniss in German). This disclosive language is
also one that evolves along with man's consciousness and the progress of
science, in that terms come more and more to be desynonymized, such as
the famous distinction Coleridge made between imagination and fancy and
awareness and consciousness. Coleridge's view was in contrast to the
predominant Lockean tradition: for Locke, static concepts and their
verbal exponents arise from experience, whereas for Coleridge the proper
use of language is a dynamic or romantic event between mind and nature.
- Coleridge's definition of "word" represents language as participating intimately in the complex relation between mind and world" "Coleridge presents language as the principal vehicle for the interaction of the knowing mind and known reality.
Thus, for Coleridge, language, that is, the different true forms of
the one Logos, discloses to us the very content and activity of
cognition, and that since 'mind is an act', language is the means for
the evolution of mind and consciousness (Logos, the evolver). Initially,
Coleridge focussed on poetry as the source of living experience in
words, but later came to understand that poetry was 'essentially ideal"
and that the poetic imagination 'struggles to idealize' and to "spread
(project) a tone around forms, incidents and situations." One had to go
beyond poetry and the poetic imagination, into the 'verbal imagination'
to get at the true power of language to use "words that convey feelings
and flash images" to disclose reality via the common ethereal element of
our being.
This involves a participative capacity of mind to create a
dynamic between mind and word, so that the minds of the reader or
listener and the writer or speaker create a co-adunation or compresence
(Samuel Alexander). This capacity involves not just the abstracting
Latin intellect (mens), but the re-emergent participative Greek nous. Coleridge referred to this new capacity of mind, using the nous to irradiate the Latin mens,
as an 'ulterior consciousness'. And this capacity of mind to
participate mind is an 'ethereal medium." Mind is at the very foundation
of being of man and much more than the sum of sense experience, and the
purpose of his method is "to render the mind intuitive of the spiritual
[non-sensible] in man" and develop "this ulterior consciousness". The
medium of the compresence of minds ("spiritual intercourse") is "the
common ethereal element of their being, the tremulous reciprocations
[tremulations] of which propagate themselves even to the inmost of the
soul." (BL)
Language is both an expression and motive force for the evolution
of consciousness; the history of words is a history of mind (see Owen Barfield's
History in English Words). For Coleridge, creation is "the language of
God" (Logos), and this can be read in the realms of nature, culture and
spirit.
Romantic cognosis
At
the core of the idea of romanticism is romantic cognosis, or
'co-gnosis', the dynamic interplay of masculine and feminine forces and
energies in the mind and imagination, involving a dyadic unit of
consciousness right from the beginning (Genesis: 'male and female made
he them'). Coleridge speaks of "the feminine mind and imagination," and
provides the polaric example of the two giants of English literature,
Shakespeare ("darts himself forth and passes into all the forms of human
character and passion") and Milton ("attracts all forms and things to
himself" which "shape themselves anew" in him). For Coleridge,
"imagination is both active and passive", that is, masculine and
feminine in nature. He also provides a similar polarity between the
essentially passive primary imagination, that (spontaneously,
reactively) configures sensory experience ("a repetition in the finite
mind of the eternal act of creation in the infinite I AM"), and the
active secondary imagination that 'dissolves, diffuses and dissipates in
order to re-create' via the higher state of mind and consciousness.
Coleridge also distinguished between the poetic imagination, which is
essentially projective, and the philosophic imagination, which is
essentially pro-active ("the scared power of self-intuition, [which] can
interpret and understand the symbols" inherent in the world around us).
For Coleridge, the life which is in each of us is in other people
and things out there as well, allowing for communication between Mother
nature and human nature, as well as between individuals. At the level
of mind, ideas are 'mysterious powers, living, seminal, formative' and
"essentially one with the germinal causes in nature. Goethe's
identification and elaboration of the Gemüt as the organ of mind for participatiing the living essence or Wesen of nature, whether in Mother or human nature, is what Coleridge termed our 'inmost mind'.
In addition to the dynamic polarity between masculine and
feminine principles of mind and consciousness, Coleridge identified "the
pleasure principle" as the "chief principle" and "great spring of
activity of our minds", from which "the sexual appetence and all the
passions connected with it take their origin.
